FORTRESS OF LOUISBOURG

HISTORICAL TECHNICAL NOTES SERIES

DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE

 

 

 

 

EXTERIOR HOUSE‑PAINT

(NARRATIVE)

 

By

 

Eric Krause

 

 

 

 

A Work in Progress (1977 ‑ present)

 

 

 

(Krause House Info Research Solutions)

 

 

 

 

Index:

 

(I) Narrative

 

(A)       General

(B)       Oil‑Based

(C)       Bound Water‑Based

(D)       Lime‑Based (White-Wash or Lime-Wash)

(E)       Reason To Paint

(F)       Colour Brightness and Texture

(G)       Pigments

(H)       Formulas (not fine-art or decorative paint formulas)

(I)        Louisbourg: Paint Sources

(J)        Louisbourg: Paint Types

(K)       Louisbourg: Reconstruction Paints


(L)       Appendices:

Appendix One:           Krause, Eric, The Built History of Port Toulouse, Isle Royale, Actual and Proposed, 1713-1755, Volume Four, Glossary of Isle Royale Building and Fortification Terminology and Techniques, Unpublished Report 9816 (Krause House Info-Research Solutions for the Fortress of Louisbourg, February 28, 1998)

Appendix Two:           Krause, Eric, Domestic Building Construction at the Fortress of Louisbourg, 1713-1758, Unpublished Report H G 10 (Fortress of Louisbourg, 1996 Draft Report)

Appendix Three:        Select Bibliography of Louisbourg Paint Reports Available on http://fortress.uccb.ns.ca


 

                                                                            (A)

 

                                                                     GENERAL

 

                                                                      EUROPE

                                                                             

                                                                    ENGLAND

 

1697

 

On one of her tours of England in 1697, Celia Fiennes commented upon the brick and quoined house of Sir Edward Blacket house, Newby Hall, Yorks, West Riding. According to her, she entered one of the gardens through a large iron bar‑gate painted green with gold tops. As well, she noted that the front entrance to the house consisted of 3 gates whose iron bars and spikes were painted blue with gold tops.[1]

 

On one of her tours of England in 1697, Celia Fiennes commented upon the brick and quoined house of Sir Edward Blacket house, Newby Hall, Yorks, West Riding. According to her, she entered one of the gardens through a large iron bar‑gate painted green with gold tops. As well, she noted that the front entrance to the house consisted of 3 gates whose iron bars and spikes were painted blue with gold tops.[2]

 

1698

 

In 1698, Celia Fiennes was in Norwitch. Noting that the buildings in the town were of an "old form [i.e. timber], mostly in deep poynts and much tileing, and their building timber and they playster on laths which they strike out into squares like broad free stone on the outside, which makes their fronts look pretty well .... they new washe and plaister their houses within and without which they strike out in squares like free stone."[3]

 

1756

 


According to Ware: [More Details to Add] [4]

 

1757

 

According to Postlethwayt, writing in 1757, English [and possibly French] painters painted doors and window shutters on both sides, as well as on the edges. They also painted sash‑frames, sash‑lights, window‑lights, casements, modillions, and cornices. [5]

 

1783

 

According to a Builder's price book, tradesmen were allowed to charge for:

 

            BRICKLAYERS WORK ... PLAIN‑TILING ... N.B. If the ridge tiles are fastened with painted T nails, add one shilling per square ...[6]


 

                                                                            (B)

 

                                                            OIL‑BASED PAINTS

 

                                                                      EUROPE

 

                                                                      FRANCE

 

General

 

According to one 18th Century source, French painters chose oil‑based paints for both inside and outside work, on wood and on iron.[7]

 

For inside work, another writer suggested that to paint wood, one ought to waterproof it first with glue, then apply one coat of white distemper with a glue sizing, and, only then, apply the oil paint. According to the same author, painting plaster walls with oil was also appropriate, as was, according to another author, the oil painting of windows, doors, and wainscoting.[8]

 

In oil painting, particular for outside work, the French painter very often compounded his colours; That is, to a base pigment, usually white lead ground in oil, he would have added another ground‑in‑oil pigment, and by mixing them together, have achieved the desired tint.[9]

In some few case, wood shingled roofs received a coating of oil paint. However, wood shingled roofs in France were a rarity. However, some secondary structures had them, as did some buildings in the Alps ‑ one of France's few remaining wooden regions ‑ as did some others where tile and slate were not available. In these instances, owners might have oil painted some of them, possibly in red or black (or blue‑black). Preferably, they would have done so every 2 years, to preserve them from heat and rain, according to some contemporary 18th sources.[10]


1729

 

According to Belidor:

 

La peinture d'impression à l'huile pour les portes d'entrées, celle des écuries, les croisées en dehors, la panne de brisis, les lucarnes de bois, & le reste, sera mise en couleur de bois, imprimée de deux couches composées de blanc de sereuse, mêlée d'ocre jaune, ou de telle autre couleur que l'on jugera convenir, de la meilleure, & broyée avec de l'huile de lin, dont la seconde couche ne se mettra que lorsque la premiere sera bien séche.[11]

 

L'on se sert ordinairement de thuile, pour faire les égoûts des couvertures d'ardoise, & afin de les rendre de la même couleur, on les peint à l'huile.[12]

 

1730

 

According to Daviler:

 

TRAVÉE D'IMPRESSION; c'est la quantité de 216 pieds, ou six toises superficielles d'impression de couleur à huile ou à détrempe, à laquelle on reduit les Planchers plafonnez, les Lambris, les Placards, & autres ouvrages de differentes grandeurs imprimez dans les Bâtimens pour en faire le toisé. Les Travées des Planchers à bois apparent, se comptent doubles, à cause des enfonçures de leurs Entrevoux. [13]

 

1770

 

According to Le Virloys:

 

Impression ... Est aussi le nom qu'on donne à cette sorte de peinture d'une seule couleur, qu'on applique sur les murs ou sur les lambris des appartemens, pour les décorer; sur les bois de charpente & de menuiserie, pour les préserver de L'humidité; sur les ouvrages de serrurerie, pour les défendre de la rouille. On dit peinture d'impression. [14]


Imprimer ... Enduire d'une ou de plusieurs couches de couleurs en détrempe ou à l'huile, les ouvrages de charpente, menuiserie, serrurerie soit pour les décorer, soit pour les conserver; ... [15]

 

Huile ... ... Il y en a par conséquent de différentes sortes, dont on fait usage dans la Peinture & pour l'imprimerie: telles que celles de lin, de noix, d'aspic, de pavot blanc ou d'oliette, de thérébentine ....

 

Huile de lin ... est celle qu'on tire de la graine de lin; elle est plus jaune & plus grasse que les autres sortes d'huiles: il ne doit l'employer que dans les impressions ...

 

Huile d'Imprimeur; est de l'huile de noix pure, brûlée jusqu'à ce qu'elle ait acquis une certaine consistance. [16]

 

Blanc de plomb ... Préparation de la rouille du plomb, qu'on nommé ainsi à cause de sa blancheur ... C'est le plus beau blanc: on le nomme aussi Céruse. [17]

 

1941

 

La peinture classique (ou traditionnelle) des pans de bois la plus belle aussi ‑ se fait au véritable sang de boeuf, elle n'est toutefois, pour des raisons techniques, à recommander que pour des surfaces saines et propres qui n'ont jamais reçu de peinture à l'huile de lin. Dans ce cas, malheureusement rare, il faut se servir de sang tout frais encore chaud, auquel il faut mélanger, en remuant constament, un peu de vernis d'huile de lin.[18]

 

                                                                    ENGLAND

 

General

 


In the 18th century, in England, a house painter worked both within and without a house. According to one English writer, house painting was once a skilled craft, requiring a knowledge of grinding, mixing, and compounding of colours. However, by mid‑century, the skill had deteriorated significantly. Colour shops, some of which used horse‑mills, were now grinding the paint themselves at such a low price as to reduce the cost of oil painting to one third the previous expense. [19]

 

According to Muller in 1755, indiscussing "House‑Painting":

 

As the various colours for priming and painting, are now‑a‑days made up ready for use, and sold in shops, I shall say nothing about them; but only observe that all painting in and about the house should be well primed, and passed over twice with the same colour the rooms are to be of, and great care must be taken to see that the colour is laid full, even, and smooth, according to the grain of the wood; for when the brush is drawn cross the grain it never looks well; this is to be understood to be done from the beginning to the entire finishing of it; or else it will be to no purpose.

 

In all out‑door painting, the colours should be mixed up with linseed oil, Spanish white, Spanish brown, and red lead in the priming, and finished with white lead; this done, it will resist the weather, and last a great while.                 

 

Painting is measured by the square yard, in the same manner as wainscoting, that is, all the mouldings are measured with a thread; the sashes of windows are paid by the piece; if the doors and their frames are painted in mahogony colour, the price is somewhat more than that of common painting; this some workmen perform so well, as to appear at a distance as well as that wood itself. When chimnies are lined with Portland stone, they are often painted like marble, and when it is well done, look very neat for three or four years.[20]

 

As well, tastes in painting had also changed. Landscape figures and imitation stones and variegated woods were no longer in vogue. Now, in order to practice his trade, a painter need no longer serve as an apprentice learning his trade, but only required an even hand and an ability to brush on the the paint according to the grain of the wood. Indeed, so many trades were now painting and daubing (a plasterers term) with dead colours that even plasterers and white‑washers had begun to call themselves house‑painters.[21]

 


In London at this time, painters' wages were low, and the strong smell of the paint and the fumes from the white‑lead ill‑affected their health greatly. Belittling them, writers of the period regarded painters as dirty, lazy and debauched fellows. Not in need of any particular level of intelligence, according to these observers, painters required only a steady brain, for standing upon the eaves of houses, or upon tottering scaffolding at windows.[22]

 

The use of pigments ground in oil for interior use grew in popularity during the 18th century. The formulas were many, resulting in assorted combinations of pigments, fluids, and additives that helped in the drying process. However, white lead ground in oil probably formed the basis of the majority of house paints.[23]

 

In 18th century England, few would have painted the exposed, exterior oak members of their half‑timber homes . It was the considered opinion of many that bitumen or paint would have sealed the wood and prevented it from breathing. Accordingly, if they had done so, capillary action would have set in, to draw water into the joints, producing the inevitable rot. [24]

 

1783

 

According to a Builder's price book, tradesmen were allowed to charge for: [More Details to Add]

 

PAINTERS PRICES ... PAINTERS work is measured wherever the brush goes ... [25]

 

1823

 

According to Nicholson: [More Details to Add]

 

House‑Painting

 

(1) Oil Paint

 

White Lead

 

Litharge

 

Linseed Oil

 

Drying Oils

 


Oil of Turpentine, or Turps

 

(2) Colours[26]

 

                                                  NORTH AMERICA - ENGLISH

 

1833

 

According to Gallier:

 

(1) Oil Paint

 

White Lead                             

 

White lead is the principal ingredient used to give body to colours for house painting, and that kind which is most esteemed for what is called flatting or dead white, is imported from England. This article is so frequently adulterated with common whiting, that it cannot be too carefully examined before it is used. Perhaps the superiority of the English lead is chiefly attributable to its being longer kept, as there is no doubt but the American lead, if kept for two or three years, would be found to answer every purpose. [27]

 

Litharge (oxide of lead) and Sugar of Lead

 

Litharge, or oxide of lead, is used as a dryer; but for delicate colours, or fine whites, sugar of lead answers the purpose much better.[28]

 

Linseed Oil

 

Linseed oil should also be kept for two or three years, that it may precipitate its colouring particles, as the more transparent it is, the better will be the paint of which it forms a component part...

 


In Holland, linseed oil is clarified by the following process, which gives it the same effect as that acquired by age. They put any quantity of oil into a well glazed pot or other vessel, and to it add fine sand and water; of each, an equal quantity as of the oil; and having covered the vessel with glass, expose it to the sun, and stir it every day. This process soon renders it very white, and when sufficiently bleached, is allowed to settle for two days, and poured off for use.[29]

 

MATERIALS USED IN PAINTING ... Linseed oil ... per gallon ... 1 [dollar] ... Boiled ditto ... ditto ... 1 [dollar] 12 [cents] ...[30]

 

Drying or Boiled Oil

 

Drying oil, or boiled oil, is usually prepared in the following manner: ‑ For every gallon of [linseed] oil, take litharge, white lead, plaster of paris, and umber, of each 4 ounces; mix them together and boil over a slow fire, taking off the scum as it rises, when the scum assumes a reddish colour, whithdraw the fire and leave the oil to cool and settle; by which it becomes fir for use.[31]

 

Turpentine

 

Oil of turpentine, or turps, as it is called, improves also very much of age, as the older it is, the longer will the work performed with it retain its colour. It is much used in flatting, for which purpose it should be of the best quality.[32]

 

Colours

 


A better taste ... is beginning to prevail; the harsh and glaring contrasts of red and while, so prevalent in the front of our streets, as well as the equally tasteless daubings in some of our interior decorations, are giving way to a more chastened style in the application of colours; but much yet remains to be done in the manner of execution. In most cases, two coats of paint are considered quite sufficient for every purpose, when even these are perhaps composed of boiled oil, new lead, and other colours laid on without any body upon the work: this produces a gloss for a short time; but as the oil soon becomes absorbed by the wood, or plaster, or evaporated by the action of the atmosphere, the surface of the wood is left bare, and every imperfection of the joiners' or plasterers' work exhibited to the eye; rendering it necessary to paint the house every year, or second at farthest, to keep it in any thing like respectable condition. Whereas if, when a new house has stood a year or two, to give time for the walls to become dry, and the joiners' work, floors, and partitions to have shrunk, and become properly settled, one good painting, with four coats of body colour, composed of the best materials, and properly executed, will last for several years by occasionally cleaning the surface of the paint, and will always look incomparably better than when done in the former manner, even with painting every year.[33]

 

COLOURS GROUND, AND READY TO MIX ...per lb. ... White lead .. 16 [cents] ... Lead coulour ... 16 [cents] ... Straw colour, mixed with chrome ... 25 [cents] ... Green, good ... 50 [cents] ... Yellow, common ... 12 [cents] ... Black colour ... 25 [cents] ... Stone colour ... 16 [cents] ... Red lead ... 16 [cents] ... Chocolate colour ... 18 [cents] ... Venetian red ... 14 [cents] ... [34]

 


PRICES OF PAINTING COMMON COULOURS: AS LEAD, STONE, CHOCOLATE, OR WHITE ... One coat in oil, including knotting and stopping ... 2 coats ... 3 coats ... 4 coats ... Flatting dead colours, once ... Ditto, twice ... For French greys, fawns ... olive greens ... Warm tints, lilacs, light greens, peach colours ... French green, deep green, yellow, blue verditer, scarlet ... lake colours ... add to the above prices ... Sanding .... If any of the above be done in party colours [i.e. door or shutter frames, etc. a different colour than the panels], add extra ... SKIRTINGS AND CORNICES .... plinths, not exceeding 9 inches girt ... ENRICHED CORNICES, Base or Impost Mouldings, Chimney Caps, Carved Work, or other Enrichments ... REVEILS TO DOORS AND WINDOWS ... if 8 inches, add 1/3 ... WATER PIPES ... If finished green, add ... WINDOW SILLS, Stringings, Edges of Coping, etc. .... HAND RAILS, Newels, Base Mouldings, etc. ... If hand rails grained add ... If varnished ... add ... Mouldings, or edges cut in, add .... SASH FRAMES ... inside or outside ... Sash squares ... IMITATIONS, Marbling, etc. ... Wainscot ... oak ... Magogany ... Coromandel, or rose wood ... Hair, or satin wood ... Mouldings or edges cut in of the same wood ... Cross banding ... Light shadowed, or broad ebony lines, to form panels ... Athenian scroll and lotus corners ... Marbling, on dead white ground ... Dove, or burdilla do. ... Antico, oriental, or verd antique ... If fluted in columns, add ... Varnished once with best copal ... twice ... three times ... If polished, add .. Spirit varnish ... MOULDINGS CUT IN ... Metal bronze, not exceeding 2 in. girt ... Oil gold, 1/2 inch girt ... Ditto, 3/4 ... For every 1/4 inch, add ... [35]

 

(2) Distemper and Distemper/Oil Paint Combinations

 

PAINTING IN DISTEMPER, OR WATER COLOURS MIXED WITH SIZE.

 

When stucco or plaster, which is intended to be painted in oil when finished, is not sufficiently dry to receive the oil colour, but requires colouring to give it a more finished appearance, it may have one or two coats in water colours of any desired tint. It will require two coats to cover the plaster, and bear out a uniform appearance. It must be remembered, that when the stucco is sufficiently dry, and it is desired to have it painted in oil, the whole of the watercolour should be washed off, which is easily done with hot water; and when quite dry, the oil can be laid on. When ceilings and cornices are much ornamented, the best way is to give them two coats of oil colour, and afterward paint them in water colours. The advantages of this method are, that, if the mouldings or enrichments become clogged up with colour, it can be all washed off to the oil, at any time, and coloured afresh, without injury to the enrichments.

 

When old plaster has become discoloured by stains, and it be desired to have it painted in distemper, it is then advisable to give the old plaster, when properly cleaned off and prepared, one coat, at least, of white lead and oil, with spirits of turpentine, which will generally fix all old stains; and when quite dry, will take the water colours very kindly. [36]

 

COLOURING IN DISTEMPER ... Whiting, in distemper, once ... twice, clear coaled, and white ... plain cornices ... to enriched do., each enrichment ... 2 coats, fawn, French gray, lilac, etc., ... blue, green, or other expensive colours ...[37]


 

(C)

 

BOUND WATER‑BASED PAINTS

(DISTEMPER, WHITING, OR CALCIMINE)

 

                                                                      EUROPE

 

                                                                      FRANCE

 

General

 

While some French 17th and 18th century writers regarded distemper as an excellent undercoat for the painting wood in oil, they, as well as others, also felt that it served as a replacement for oil when painting windows, doors, wainscoting, or walls.[38] Naturally, they were speaking of inside work only, on [plaster] and on wood. In fact, as one writer would maintain:

 

The most beautiful of the paints and that which is glossiest is the distemper, known as chipolin. [39]

 

According to one 20th century contemporary writer, relying mostly on English sources:

 

By and large, distemper was much more important during the nineteenth century than during the eighteenth. Its use during the eighteenth century was confined, for the most part, to substituting for oil base priming. Distemper priming, although an inexpensive shortcut, was generally viewed as objectionable because it was not very durable.[40]

 

In contrast, according to another 20th century writer, his conclusions also based on English sources, the use of a:

 


size‑bound distemper ... [was a] technique widely employed in interiors, and indeed, essential to the achievement of a number of bright colours which had been fashionable during the second half of the eighteenth century.[41]

 

According to Postlethwayt, writing in 1757, in plaster work, "whiting and colouring" was being applied between quartering, and on the returns of the quartering.[42]

 

1697

 

According to Felibien:

 

CHAUX FUSÉE, c'est‑à‑dire détrempée; fuser la Chaux, c'est la détremper. Ce terme n'est pas usité à Paris. Phil de Lorme conseille de faire la Chaux des mesmes pierres dont le bâtiment est construit. Il faut voir les raisons de cela dans les Notes de M. Per. sur le 5.c du 2. l de Vitr. [43]

 

FUSÉE. Il y a des lieux où l'on dit la chaux fusee, pour dire, de la chaux qu'on détrempée, ou qui s'est détrempée d'elle‑mesme à l'air, sans y mettre de l'eau.[44]

 

1730

 

According to Daviler:

 

BLANCHIR; c'est en Maçonnerie faire une ou plusieurs impressions de blanc à cole sur un Mur sale, après y avoir passé un lait de chaux, pour rendre quelque lieu plus clair & plus propre. On blanchit tous les ans dans les Villes des Pais‑Bas, les façades des Maisons pour les embellir; & dans les Pais chauds, on blanchit les dedans pour conserver les Tapisseries & rendre les lieux plus frais. [45]

 


IMPRIMER; c'est dans l'Art de bâtir, peindre d'une ou de plusieurs couches d'une même couleur à huile ou à détrempe, les ouvrages de Charpenterie, de Menuiserie, de Serrurerie, etc. qui sont au dedans ou dehors des Bâtimens, autant pour les conserver que pour les décorer. [46]

 

DÉTREMPE. Couleur employée à l'eau & à la cole, dont on imprime, & peint dans les Bâtimens. [47]

 

MUR BLANCHI ... ou qui estant de maçomnnerie, est imprimé d'un lait de chaux, & d'une ou plusieurs couches de blanc. [48]

 

1770

 

According to Le Virloys:

 

Imprimer ... Enduire d'une ou de plusieurs couches de couleurs en détrempe ou à l'huile, les ouvrages de charpente, menuiserie, serrurerie soit pour les décorer, soit pour les conserver; ... [49]

 

Détrempe ... Couleurs broyées à l'eau & à la colle, qu'on emploie sur le plâtre, le bois ... où il n'y ait ni graisse, ni chaux ... Détremper ... Délayer la chaux avec de l'eau, dans un bassin, avec le rabot.[50]

 

Blanchi ... Qu.on a enduit de blanc ... [51]

 


Blanchement ... L'action de blanchir, de faire une impression de blanc, sur des murs, des plafonds, etc [52]

 

Blanchir ... Imprimer les murs, les plafonds, en blanc de détrempe. [53]

 

Blanc d'Espagne ... ainsi nommé, à cause qu'il vient de ce pays, est le gros blanc dont on se sert en détrempe pour blanchir les plafonds, les murs, etc. & pour nétoyer les métaux. [54]

 

Writing in 1780, a French author clearly confirms this fashion trend:

 

Jamais la Peinture d'impression n'a été aussi en vogue [inside] qu'elle l'est aujourd'hui.[55]

 

However, like most trends, its roots were earlier. For instance, in 1743, a French writer indicated that painters in the country, as well as in the villages, knew only of common painting (of which the writer did not describe), but nothing about the [decorative] distemper painting of fine woodwork (i.e. new wood, or old, dirty, wood which has been prepared by whitewashing) such as wainscoting; or its varnishing (which served to protect these fine works). Consequently, this author proceeded to discuss the proper composition of this [decorative] distemper (it must have a superior glue that would not deaden colour pigments); the variety of special, brilliant colour pigments (compounded whiting, pale yellow, straw, blue, green, lilac) that distemper painting allowed; their application (using very fine brushes); as well as varnishings, to give a lustre to the colours, to maintain their intensity, and to protect them from the elements.[56]

 


Common distemper consisted of water, a size (animal glue or parchment melted in hot water) as a binder, and a colouring agent.[57] Likewise, whiting (invariably referred to by French writers as the base for its country's distempers), or calcimine (kalsomine), was also a distemper, consisting, in this case, of a white or tinted (to pearl grey for example, for the finish coat) mixture of whiting (chalk), glue size, and water.[58]

 

In other words, it is "the Working up of colours with something else besides bare Water or Oil; as if the Colours are mixed with Size, Whites of Eggs, or any such proper glutinous or unctuous Substance, and not with Oil, then the Painting is said to be done in Distemper, ... Water Colours [in Painting] are such Colours as are only diluted and mix'd up with Gum Water, in Contradistinction to Oil Colours. Water Colours are us'd in what we call Limming; as Oil Colours are in Painting, properly so call'd."[59]

 

During the 18th century, the "whiting" of interior walls was quite common. This type of distemper paint consisted of Spanish white broken into warm water to which was added a strong size. Upon cooling, it appeared as a thin jelly, which the painter could then brush onto the walls. He would have applied at least two coats.[60]

 

                                                                    ENGLAND

 

1823

 

According to Nicholson: [More Details to Add]

 

Distemper Paint

 

Colours[61]

 

                                                  NORTH AMERICA - ENGLISH

 

1833


New York

 

According to Gallier:

 

Distemper and Distemper/Oil Paint Combinations

 

PAINTING IN DISTEMPER, OR WATER COLOURS MIXED WITH SIZE.

 

When stucco or plaster, which is intended to be painted in oil when finished, is not sufficiently dry to receive the oil colour, but requires colouring to give it a more finished appearance, it may have one or two coats in water colours of any desired tint. It will require two coats to cover the plaster, and bear out a uniform appearance. It must be remembered, that when the stucco is sufficiently dry, and it is desired to have it painted in oil, the whole of the watercolour should be washed off, which is easily done with hot water; and when quite dry, the oil can be laid on. When ceilings and cornices are much ornamented, the best way is to give them two coats of oil colour, and afterward paint them in water colours. The advantages of this method are, that, if the mouldings or enrichments become clogged up with colour, it can be all washed off to the oil, at any time, and coloured afresh, without injury to the enrichments.

 

When old plaster has become discoloured by stains, and it be desired to have it painted in distemper, it is then advisable to give the old plaster, when properly cleaned off and prepared, one coat, at least, of white lead and oil, with spirits of turpentine, which will generally fix all old stains; and when quite dry, will take the water colours very kindly.[62]

 

COLOURING IN DISTEMPER ... Whiting, in distemper, once ... twice, clear coaled, and white ... plain cornices ... to enriched do., each enrichment ... 2 coats, fawn, French gray, lilac, etc., ... blue, green, or other expensive colours ...[63]


 

                                                                           (D)

 

                                                          LIME‑BASED PAINTS

                                                 (WHITEWASH OR LIME‑WASH)

 

General

 

Whitewash, a liquid rendering made of slaked lime and water, was commonly available during the 18th century.[64]

 

                                                                      EUROPE

 

                                                                      FRANCE

 

1697

 

According to Felibien:

 

LAITANCE, c'est de la chaux, qui estant détrempée fort clairement, ressemble à du lait. On en blanchit des murailles, des Plafonds & d'autres choses, principalement dans les lieux il n'y a pas de plastre. [65]

 

1730

 

According to Daviler:

 

DÉTREMPER LA CHAUX; c'est la délayer avec de l'eau, & le rabot dans un petit Bassin, d'où elle coule ensuite dans une fosse en terre, pour y être conservée avec du sable par ‑dessus.[66]

 

LAIT DE CHAUX; c'est de la Chaux delayée avec de l'eau, dont on se sert pour blanchit les murs, & qu'on appelle aussi Laitance. [67]


1730's

 

In Paris, in the 1730's for example, whitewashed buildings {more likely this was with distemper rather than with a whitewash ‑ see distmper section) were relatively common. Indeed, in 1733 or 1734, one interested Parisian even suggested making the practice periodically mandatory, in order to brighten up the city's face. [68]

 

1755

 

According to Liger, torchis was applied to framed and other small buildings, and could be white‑washed:

 

La Bauge n'est autre chose que de la terre franche mêlée avec de la paille ou du foin haché, bien paîtrie & bien corroyée: on s'en sert beaucoup dans les pays où la pierre & le plaître sont rares ... Quand la bauge s'applique sur de la charpente, comme pour granges, étables, & autres menus bâtimens, ils appellent cet ouvrage du Torchis, parce que le pan de bois ou charpente, qui n'est ordinairement qu'un assemblage de quelques mauvais petits poteaux lattés, étant dressé, on prend de la bauge, on la tortille autour de certains bâtons en forme de torchis, d'où vient le nom de Torchis: on appelle ces bâtons des palissons ou palots, & on les met avec force dans les entailles entre les bois de la charpente, à quatre ou cinq pouces l'un de l'autre. Quand tout le mur est ainsi chargé, on en crépit la surface avec de la même bauge bien corroyée, on l'unit avec la truelle, & si l'on veut on la blanchit avec du lait de chaux. On garnit aussi des planchers à la campagne de cette même matiere. [69]

 

Liger also discussed the construction of large kennel buildings as follows:

 

Dans un coin du chenil il faut un petit bâtiment de deux chambres basses pour les chiens, & deux autres chambres au‑dessus pour le valet de chiens. Dans chaque chambrée de chiens il y aura une cheminée pour faire grand feu quand il en sera besoin ... Les murs du dedans du chenil doivent être bien blanchis, les fenêtres bien fermées de vitres, pour que les mouches n'y entrent point .[70]

 

Liger also discussed the construction of pigeon houses as follows:

 


On doit enduire le colombier de bon mortier, & le blanchir dedans & dehors; car cette couleur plaît fort aux pigeons, & même les y attire.[71]

 

Liger also described the construction of hen houses as follows:

 

Il faut que le poulaillier soit de bonnes murailles, bien maçonnées & blanchies dehors & dedans.[72]

 

1770

 

According to Le Virloys:

 

Lait de chaux, ou Laittance ... Est de la chaux détrempée avec de l'eau, dont on se sert pour blanchir les murailles, plafonds, etc. principalement dans les endroits où il n'a point de plâtre. [73]

 

                                                                    ENGLAND

 

1755

 

According to Muller:

 

The mortar made for ceilings is different from that we have been speaking of; it is made of ox or cows hair well mixt and tempered with lime and water, without any sand: the common method of making this mortar is, one bushel of hair to six bushels of lime; the hairs serve to keep the lime or mortar from cracking, and to bind and hold it fast together. [74]

 


In buildings of no great consequence, the laths are nailed on the joists, so as a part of the girder appears below the ceiling; this is done in view to get 5 o5 6 inches in the height of the room; and the part of the girders that appear are covered with deal boards, and with a little cornice round it, and painted with the same colour as the wainscot. The plaster for ceiling is made of lime and hair, to make it stick the better, and on very smooth; when it is dry and has any cracks in it, as commonly happens, it is passed over with a trowel dipt in thin plaster, this is continued till it is quite smooth, and without any cracks; after this it is white‑washed two or three times over, with lime‑water and size, till it appears of a fine white. [75]

1783

 

According to a Builder's price book, tradesmen were allowed to charge for:

 

PLAISTERERS PRICES ... LIME‑WHITEING ... Wash, stop, clear‑coal and white ... Circular, ditto ... White only to new work ... Wash, stop and white, to ornament ceilings ... Ditto, ornaments only ... Ditto and straw‑colour, picked in to grounds ... Plain colouring ... Orange colouring on stucco ... Plain moulding, cleaned, repaired and whitened ...[76]

 

RENDERING ... Chimneys rendered and blacked ... Rendering, trowled and blacked ...[77]

 

LATH AND PLASTER ... Ditto [Floated lath and plaister] set, and white ...Ditto [Floated lath and plaister] with strong fir laths and 4d. nails, and washed and stopped for painters ...[78]

 

PLAISTER CORNICES ... Plain cove cornice and whited ... Ditto with an eye dentel and whited ...[79]

 

BORDERS ... Oval border, enriched 0‑gee, guilochi and flower, ribband and flower, and whited ...[80]

 


DAY WORK ... Whiting, per dozen ...[81]

 

PAINTING ON ORNAMENTAL STUCCO, AS CEILINGS, ETC. ... Distemper on stucco with enriched mouldings, grounds, straw, lemon or pink colours, etc., and the moulding white ... .[82]

 

ORNAMENTAL FIGURE PAINTING IN DISTEMPER ... [More Details to Add] .[83]


 

                                                                            (E)

 

                                                            REASON TO PAINT

 

                                                                      EUROPE

 

                                                                      FRANCE

General

 

The two reasons were: Decoration and/or preservation.

 

In France of the 18th century, experts began to ask whether an exterior covering in oil paint, tar, or pitch was really superior, or whether, indeed , there existed a better substitute impenetrable to water. Two observable facts provoked this question: While these particular coverings prevented water from penetrating, equally they kept water from escaping.[84]

 

In land‑bound France, it was customary to paint 3 times in oil (the second coat to contain fine sand, it was recommended) any wood exposed to air (as opposed to wood submerged in water for example). The common colours were red and yellow ochre, or white lead.

 

1697

 

According to Felibien:

 

On appelle aussi OCHRE rouge la terre rouge, qui souvent est une mesme matiere que l'Ochre jaune. La rouge est ordinairement plus proche de la surface de la terre, & semble avoir pris cette couleur plus forte de la chaleur du Soleil qu'elle reçoit plus aisément que l'autre qui est dessous. Aussi en calcinant l'Ochre jaune on luy donne une couleur jaune, & une espece de limon qui se trouvoit dans les mines d'argent [85]

 

In the ports, i.e. harbours, however, tar, pitch, melted resins in oil, and other substances such as sulfur and oil mixtures were more common. Here, in these places, the experts deemed the damaging effects of rain upon wood to be greater, requiring differing protective measures.[86]

 


Notwithstanding this argument over superior paint types, the experts also factored in the use of dry versus wet wood, as well as the quality of wood. Firstly, they concluded that it was useless to try to protect either green or wet wood exposed to sun and rain since such coverings only accelerated rot; Secondly, that protected outlasted unprotected dry wood; And thirdly, that protected wood submerged wood in water seemingly lasted forever. [87]

 

                                                                    ENGLAND

General

 

In 18th Century England, one writer considered house painting as a part of a building just as important any other part, both for "Use and Ornament." In other words, exterior woodwork [i.e. the most expensive woodwork of a building, as well as its most aesthetic], like window sashes, doors, dormant frames and casings, shutters, and ironwork, if not painted, "in a very few Years, are so much decayed ... that were those Buildings to be made tenantable, most of the outside Timber‑Work must be renewed ... As to the [interior] ornamentle Part, there is no Gentleman but must allow that there is a great difference between a clean painted Room, and one that hath not been painted, or where the Painting is foul." [88]

 

According to Charles James, writing in 1816, while referring to Bettesworth's 1734 "The Builder's Dictionary," noted:

 

the manner of colouring all sorts of timber‑work, particularly of gun‑carriages, wagons, etc. ... which require either beauty or preservation from the violence of rain, or injury of seasons, is so well known, that we shall not enter into any particulars ...[89]

 

Even in the 19th century, "inside painting ... was employed as a vehicle of ornament as much as for the preservation of wood [, and] its restoration, or renewal, is more subject to the rules of taste than a­n­y absolute requirement of utility ...".[90] Period paints, while initially bright, owing to their formulation with hand‑ground pigments, not only create a ropiness when applied, but yellowed severely (according to critics of the period) owing, as we now know it, to their unstable vehicle (such as linseed‑oil) and resin compositions.[91]


Painters applied more than one coat of paint for several reasons. One was a desire to achieve a certain degree of durability, but the other, was an attempt to achieve an even colour from the technology of suspending a pigment in oil. [92]

 

Why to paint wood might be best answered by why builders used wood. If wainscoting, for example, the wood was "usually cut to show the attractive radiating medullary rays of the tree, so displaying the largest amount of grain."[93] But if the wainscot were of a wood of an inferior species, or if it had faded or turned from its natural colour, then it might have been painted.[94]

 


 

                                                                            (F)

 

                                          COLOUR BRIGHTNESS AND TEXTURE

 

                                                         COLOUR DEFINITION

General

 

A colour pigment is an:

 

insoluble substance that is mixed with a vehicle to make a paint. Besides lending color to a finish film, pigments serve three major purposes: they thicken the fluid film so that it can be applied in heavier layers; they help make the dried vehicle less porous; and they lend hardness to the paint. Pigments were derived from both organic and inorganic sources, or in other words, they were procured from the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms. ...

 

Many of the mineral pigments, such as the ochres, were mined directly from the ground and required very little processing before being incorporated into paints. In other instances, pigments had to be synthesized from available reagents.[95]

 

                                                                 COLOUR LIFE

General

 

Considered contemporary opinion maintains that original 18th century colours were "much brighter, less yellow and glossier" than the "so‑called Williamsburg colors," but that paint colours were short lived because of the following reasons:

 

paint vehicles and resins used in earlier times often yellowed severely; another [reason] is the rapid degradation of unstable pigments used in the past are not used in modern architectural paints because their rather rapid reactions to light, oxygen and other substances make them undesirable for use today. Such reactions, of course, lead to changes in color, glossiness and texture, and they can even cause loss of adhesion. ...Residents probably lived with the fading color for several years before repainting or otherwise covering the old paint. Therefore, the paint may have retained its original brightness for only a short time. [96]

 


                                                                             

                                                 EUROPE - FRANCE - PRACTICE

General

 

In 18th century France, the practice was to whitewash blackened stable and kitchen ceilings and walls. In the case of fine woodwork, dirtied or greasy, or covered by an old oil or water‑based paint requiring its removal, owners would have washed down the walls with repeated applications of lye (a potash/pearl‑ash mixture: 1 "demi‑septier" of lye to 1 pint of water), followed by a splashing of clean water, and, if painted, by a scrapping (of moldings, for example, where paint might still remain). The exercise was to return the wood to a state similar to having never been painted (the question of what was to be done next was not broached). [97]

 

                                               EUROPE - ENGLAND - PRACTICE

General

 

In the 18th century, English painters reduced all paint colours to two classes: dark or obscure and earthy like black or umber; and light, like white and those which come closest to it.[98]

 

In 18th century England as well, for outside work, it may not have been uncommon for owners to have re‑painted in the same colour every 4 or 5 years, or less, depending on the severity of the weather upon the lustre of the paint. For inside work (decorated or not), soiled and tarnished by dust, smoke, fly excrement, etc., workers, using strong bristle brushes, may have, from time to time, been made busy gently scouring the work with a mixture of well‑sifted wood ash and water, followed by a cleansing water rinse.[99]

 

                                                                     TEXTURE

General

 

Contemporary 20th century writers contribute the general ropiness of 18th century paints to the use of laboriously, hand‑ground pigments.[100] Yet, several period accounts clearly suggest otherwise, that grinding difficulties were but one of several possible reasons for this ropiness, and that ropiness need not be always the case.


Indeed, the grinding process itself was not sacrosanct. For example, some 18th century painters instead repeatedly washed down the pigments of a "coarse and sandy nature" until the reserve included only those "of an uniform fineness."[101] In particular, red lead, ochres, and chalk were suitable to this process.

 

Consequently, technique, perhaps as much as technical limitations, were the cause for this ropy appearance. For example, one period writer urged that the grinding of a pigment must (and, hence, could) continue until as fine as butter, and that, some pigments actually required little or no grinding at all (lamp‑black), while others a painter might grind fine with ease (Spanish brown), or, as fine as the oil itself, given the necessary expenditure of time and pain (white lead, ochres, and, indeed, perhaps most other pigments as well). In contrast, hand labour alone would have found the grinding of red lead to a fine texture, difficult if not impossible.[102]

 

As an aside, according to one 19th century account, to hand‑grind 1 kilogram of red ochre into the necessary 0.5 kilograms of linseed oil required 8.5 hours as opposed to 6.5 hours for yellow ochre. The same account, however, seems to contract 18th century accounts that lamp‑black required little or no grinding, in that it stated that to grind 1 kilo of lamp‑black in 0.8 kilos of oil required 8.5 hours.[103] Obviously, this was not the "soot raised from the Rosiny and fat Parts of Fir Trees ... [of] Sweden and Norway ...more generally used in Painting [in England] than any other ... without grinding."[104]

 

At any rate, French writers, from time to time, instructed painters to purposely apply thick (gros) coats of paint. For instance, they were to use "une couleur grossiére"; were to paint "en grosse couleur a l'huile, en rouge ou noir" or "du gros blanc écrasé pour faire le blanc"; or were to apply "deux ou trois couches de grosse couleur a l'huile" to the backing of wood set against a wall, to keep the wood.[105]


 

On the other hand, one period English writer clearly stated that, by 1747, some colour shops (which carried both compounded and non‑compounded colours), were not only employing labourers, but had set up horse mills as well, for the grinding of "ready‑prepared" colours. In particular, certain companies had turned to engines (i.e. mechanical devices), horses, as well as labourers, for the dangerous (because of mercurial fumes) production of red and white lead.

 

Further, the aforementioned colour shops that were producing "ready‑mixed" colours were doing so at a price which the writer regarded as uncommonly low.[106]

 

While most "ready‑prepared" colours were likely still hand ground, no doubt some most certainly were machine ground. Whether machine ground pigments were finer than hand‑ground pigments remains unknown. And, besides compounding pigments, British colour shops also provided ready‑made paint, i.e. "colours ground in oyl, fit for painting" which, were, at least as early as 1724, available in Boston, just arrived from London.[107] Presumably then, some of these as well included mechanically ground pigments.

 

Finally, evidence suggests that the 18th century painter, in oil at least, saw a degree of ropiness as a good thing. Indeed, it was his experience that well‑ground colours layed down "stiff" (i.e. thick, substantial, and well‑bodied) lasted best. Indeed, 19th century writers continued to refer to the need to lay down a "paint quite stiff", at least in the case of a second exterior coat.[108]

 

18th century writers recognized that a linseed oil‑based paint mixed with "fat drying" linseed oil, to hasten its drying, displayed two disquieting qualities: one, if the "fat drying" oil were produced through boiling, the oil tended to take on a deep reddish hue which in turn altered the inherent colour of some added pigments; and two, that if this were white paint, for indoor use, a lack of air and sun exposure would eventually turn the paint yellow (in other words, linseed oil, exposed to air and light, becomes drying and loses its colour).[109]


Indeed, throughout the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, the use of filtered raw linseed oil [produced by means of either cold or hot pressing] or boiled linseed oil [i.e. raw oil and certain driers heated together to a high temperature] has remained a moot point, as painters seem to have chosen one or the other, as per personal preference, whether for exterior use (often raw) or interior use (often boiled), and/or whether used as a priming or subsequent coat.[110] Accordingly, while one 20th century writer regarded linseed oil that was yellow and transparent the best for house paints, he did not believe that it need not be drawn cold (i.e. extracted without the use of a heated press) nor bleached clear (a process known in the 18th century, but unlikely practiced widely until the 19th, to remove the natural brown colour of raw linseed oil, which reddened when boiled with the addition of some driers, that severely limited its use as a binder for lighter coloured pigments):

 

since there is not any known process for preventing the discolouring after its drying ... [and that while] linseed oil is sometimes boiled with litharge to make it dry quickly, ... when it is thus treated it is unfit for best work [presumably, though much used by painters as a drying oil, its darker colour caused tinting problems].[111]

 

According to the French writer Le Virloys:

 

LITHARGE ... Est du plomb empreint des impuretés de quelqu'autre métal, & reduit en scories, ou en espèce d'écume métallique, par la calcination; il y n a, par conséquent, de différentes sortes, la litharge d'or & celle d'argent sont celles que les Peintres employent pour dégraisser les huiles, & les rendre siccatives. [112]

 


One 18th century French writer, who spoke about the beauty and glossiness of period oil‑based paints, when recommending, as almost an afterthought, the use of turpentine oil (huile) or spirits (essence), together with a drying agent (so that the paint would dry faster and not yellow), seemingly ignored the additional effect of his recommendation.[113] In the 19th and early 20th century, when painting techniques similar to the 18th still remained much in vogue, it was widely understood that:

 

The smaller the proportion of oil employed for the purpose, the less will be the gloss and the greater the ultimate hardness of the coating. For flatted white, etc., the colour being ground in oil, requires scarcely any further addition but turpentine, the object being to keep it flat or dull.[114]

 

An 18th century English writer, who also recommended oil of turpentine (note: not turpentine was not an 18th century invention) for its known drying qualities, particularly when slow drying lampblack pigments were involved, suggested that painters mix varnish (created by dissolving some "good clear turpentine" ‑ i.e. common turpentine ‑ in "oil of turpentine" with any colour, in order to:

 

Make those colours shine much when dry, and preserve their Beauty beyond most other Things, drying with an extreme Glossy Surface, more smooth than Oil alone, and will also better resist the Injuries of the Air and Weather, provided too much of it be not put in. [115]

 

He might have also added, as did another English writer of the period, that such a procedure would have allowed the painter the luxury of not varnishing afterwards.[116]

 


For inside work, one French writer also recommended varnishing over the final coat, whether it be oil‑based or bound water‑based did not matter. In the mid 18th century, varnishing served two purposes: to impart a gloss and lustre (i.e. surface shining) while protecting the paint from weather and dust. At the same time, varnish would have transmitted the tone of any transparent undercoat (i.e. any colour pigment, not mixed with white or other opaque pigment, which becomes transparent when wetted with oil), to give a depth, softness, and brilliance which flat, opaque paints lack.[117]

 

Significantly, one 18th century French writer, who noted that, respectively, white lead and whiting were the base pigments for common oil and water‑bound painting, described the tints resulting from mixing other pigments with these base colours as "couleurs a plat."[118] In other words, he seems to have regarded French painting as flat and opaque, and covering rather than transparent.

 


 

                                                                           (G)

 

                                                             PAINT PIGMENTS

 

General

 

The important pigments in house painting which would have presented the fewest supply or technical problems in their use were:

 

 

PIGMENT                             COLOUR

 

(1) White lead              White

 

(2) Whiting                               White

 

(3) Ochres (Umbers)                Red, Brown, Yellow

 

(4) Carbons                              Black [119]

 

[More Details to Add - What about Green Types - See Jombert]

 

On the other hand, some writers, particular the English ones, listed numerous ground‑in‑oil "colours used in House‑Painting" and their relative costs. Unfortunately, listed costs varied considerably, from writer to writer, and the table below should be considered more illustrative than accurate:

 

                                            (A) General Comments: Painter's Charge

 

Outside painting, 3 times in oil:                          6 d. to 8 d. per yard (if well‑done)

Inside painting, common colours, new work:      6 d. per yard

Inside painting, common colours, old work:       4 d. per yard

 

                                                           (B) Specific Comments

 

PIGMENT                             COLOUR


White Lead                              White

 

Pigment Cost:   4 d. per pound, in 2 d. of oil [Note: linseed oil costs 10 d. per quart, drying oil costs 12 d. per quart, and turpentine costs 12 d. per quart] Pound will Cover 8 square yards (i.e., the cost is 3/4 d. per yard)

 

Painter's Charge:           4 d. per yard (i.e., 3/4 d. per yard for the pigment in oil, plus 3 3/4 d. for the labour)

 

(France: 2 coats,

in oil):               40 & 42 sols la toise

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

 

Pearl

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ 

 

Lead

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

 

Cream

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

 

Stone

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

 

Wainscot or Oak

 

Pigment Cost:   4 d. & 5 d. per pound

Pound Will Cover:        8 square yards

Painter's Charge           4 d. per yard

(France: Wood

Colour, in oil):   35 & 38 sols la toise

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

 

Chocolate

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

 

 

Mahogany

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

 

Cedar

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

 


Walnut Tree

 

Pigment Cost:   6 d. per pound, in oil

Pound Will Cover:        10 square yards

Painter's Charge           4 d. per yard, or more

                        (France: Wood

Colour, in oil):   35 & 38 sols la toise

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

 

Gold

 

Pigment Cost:   8 d. per pound, in oil

Pound Will Cover:        8 square yards

                        Painter's Charge:           10 or 12 d. per yard, or more

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

 

Olive (an extraordinary colour)

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

 

Pea

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

 

Fine Sky Blue mixed with (the extraordinary colour of) Prussian Blue

 

Pigment Cost:   8 d.. to 12 d. per pound, in oil

                        Pound Will Cover:        8 square yards

Painter's Charge:           10 or 12 d. per yard, or more

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

 

Orange

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

 

Lemon

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

 

Straw

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

 

Pink

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

 

Blossom

 

Pigment Cost:   12 d. per pound, in oil


Pound Will Cover:        8 square yards

Painter's Charge:           10 or 12 d. per yard, or more

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

 

Fine Deep Green (an extraordinary colour)

 

Pigment Cost:               30 d. per pound, in oil

Pound Will Cover:                    20 square yards

Painter's Charge:                       12 d. per yard             

Painter's Charge

(France):                                  55 sols & 60 sols la toise

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

 

First Primer

 

Pigment Cost:   4 d. per pound, in oil

Pound Will Cover:        20 square yards

Painter's Charge:           Charge not given

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

 

Second Primer

 

Pigment                        Cost:4 d. per pound, in oil

Pound Will Cover:        12 square yards

Painter's Charge:           Charge not given

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

 

Black, in oil

 

Painter's Charge

(France):                      30 & 35 sols la toise

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

 

In contrast, in France, other painting costs included:

 

Whiting                         White

 

Painter's Cost

(new ceilings,   

2 coats):                       5 and 6 sols la toise

 

Painter's Cost

(old ceilings, 1 coat):     3 & 4 sols la toise

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

 


Whitewash                               White

 

Painter's Cost

(several coats): 7 & 8 sols la toise [120]

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑


 

                                                                           (H)

 

                                                            PAINT FORMULAS

                                           (not fine‑art and decorative paint formulas)

 

                                                          (1) OIL-BASED PAINT

 

Circa 1730's[121]

 

(1) New Wooden Work

 

(a) Brush new wooden work clean;

(b) Stop holes with putty and paint over with paint you have chosen;

(c) Cover knots with size and red lead, before painting;

(d) Stir in 6 pounds of paint to every one quart of oil, to an even thickness;

(e) Paint with the grain;

(f) Prime the new wood twice;             

(g) Apply a weak hot size, and let it dry over night;

(h) Paint with the desired colour;

(i) Paint in not too cold or damp weather, but if warm, open windows and doors and give the paint a thorough airing, for the sooner it dries, the better it will look;

 

(2) Old wooden Work

 

(a) First brush over with melted size and let dry;

(b) Paint as for new wooden work;

 

(3) Plaster Walls

 

(a) Twice brush the walls with a strong size and let dry;

(b) Paint once or twice with the desired oil colour

 

4) Exterior Weather‑boarding

 

(a) Paint twice, or better yet, three times;

(b) Sift dry sea sand upon the last coat while still wet;

(c) When dry, sweep off loose sand;

(d) Paint again, and sift more sea sand upon it;


(e) When dry, sweep off loose sand;

(f) Paint well with lead based oil‑paint;

 

1734[122]

 

(1) When painting wood (inside or out), stop (i.e. fill in) and smooth off all cracks using a putty consisting of a well‑beaten mixture of whiting and linseed oil [probably raw oil, of a natural brown colour];

 

(2) The use of "fat drying" oils encourages the fast drying of oil‑based paints and produce finishes of added beauty and lustre (i.e. as if glazed over with a varnish);

 

(3) How to make a "fat drying" [today called boiled] oil (because it will be of a deep reddish colour it will, to a degree, alter the inherent colour of a pigment):

 

(a) Add 2 ounces of finely powdered litharge of lead to one quart of ("plain,")[ i.e. raw] linseed oil;

 

(b) Boil for one hour until the oil becomes "fat";

 

(c) Set on fire, stir for a minute or two, then extinguish, and let cool;

 

(d) Pour off the clear oil, leaving behind the litharge which has settled to the bottom;

 

(4) [Bleaching:] An alternate method for making a "fat drying" oil (of a clear white colour which will not alter the colour of a pigment):

 

(a) Add 2 ounces of litharge to a quart of linseed oil;

 

(b) Let the mixture sit in a glass in the hot sun for a month as the sun will remove [bleach] the colour from either linseed or walnut oil;

 

(c) Well stir the mixture twice a week;

 

(d) When the oil is white, clear, fat, and thick, it is ready;

 

(5) Oil‑based paint formula:

 


(a) Produce a batch of [prepared] "fat drying" oil by mixing 3 parts "plain" [raw] linseed oil with one part of a "fat drying" [boiled] oil (although some colour pigments like red lead, or umbers, being already fast drying, do not require the inclusion of a "fat drying" oil, its presence will increase a paint's beauty and lustre;

 

 (b) Or, instead of using a "fat drying" oil to hasten colour drying use, [prepare] an oil batch with:                       

 

(i) The powder of burned copperas

 

(ii) Or, a [drying] oil of turpentine, in which [not too much] good clear turpentine has been dissolved, before mixed with the oil and colours, to make:

 

(a) The colours shine when dry;

 

(b) To preserve the beauty of the colour;

 

(c) To cause the paint to dry with an extreme glossy surface, more smooth than if the oil had been used alone;

 

(d) And to produce a better resistance against the injuries of air and water;

 

(c) Take a house paint colour (i.e. produced from the repeated process of grinding two spoonfuls of a pigment into a small batch of [prepared] "fat drying" linseed oil until it becomes the consistency of butter - or buy the colour, already ready ground, from a colour shop), and add more [prepared] "fat drying" linseed oil in sufficient quantity to produce:

 

(i) An [absorbing] priming colour (usually the pigment is Spanish Brown, because of its cheapness, abundance, and ease of grinding) which is very thin, so as to penetrate [saturate completely] into the wood, and act as a preservative (repeat the process two days later, when mostly dry, if you are particular);

 

(ii) A first, second, and even third layer of paint colour (each applied when the previous coat is thoroughly dry) which is as stiff as it ought to be (i.e. not so thin as to be transparent, but thick enough that it be greater than twice as thin);

 

(d) However, if the colour is produced from a white lead pigment (of which there are two types: Ceruse, the most pure, and the other, simply called white lead), then:


 

(i) For outside work, grind it into [prepared] "fat drying" linseed oil, to preserve timber or stonework from the weather, for it will bind extremely hard, if applied stiff;

 

(ii) For inside work, grind it in [prepared] "fat drying" nut oil, because a [prepared] "fat drying" linseed oil (when not exposed to the open air) will eventually turn from white to yellow.

 

(6) "Rub" on the paint colour as "stiff" as necessary, using a large bristle brush.However, not too stiff, particularly in the case of white paint exposed to the sun, since the paint will dry only on the outside, leaving the inside moist. If this happens, like pitch, the paint will crack and shrink.

 

1770[123]

 

(1) Apply oil‑based paints cold;

 

(2) Use a drying oil like linseed, nut, or poppy oil;

 

(3) Brush on, cold, 1 coat, or more, of this nearly clear drying oil, and let it soak into the wood (However, for a plastered wall, 1 or 2 coats of boiling linseed oil is often applied);

 

(4) Then brush on 1 coat of white lead pigment ground into a mixture of 3/4 of drying oil and 1/4 of essence;

 

(5) Essence: To hasten the drying process, add 1/8th of an ounce of vitriol or copperas, or better yet, some litharge, or, best yet, some essence of turpentine, to the drying oil;

 

(6) Letting the paint dry between coats, brush on 2 following coats of a desired colour pigment ground in a drying oil:

 

(a) For inside work ‑ add a pure essence to the paint;

 

 (b) For outside work ‑ add some oil to the paint.

 

 

1788 [124]

 


(1) Ration the white lead to the oil at 5 pounds per gallon (700 pounds to 140 gallons).

 

1798 [125]

 

(A) Equipment

 

(1) Never paint but in dry weather

(2) Brushes, a pot to boil the oil, and ladders

 

(B) Roofs: Fish Oil Paint Formula

 

(1) Paint with Fish‑oil mixed with Paint: Spanish brown, mixed with Tar & fish oil

 

(C) Indoor/Outdoor Linseed Oil Paint Formula

 

(1) Every part to be painted is to have two good Coats well laid on

 

(2) 240 pounds of best white Lead;

 

(3) 1/2 an hundred weight of Spanish brown;

 

(4) Like quantity of yellow Ochre;

 

(5) All ground in oil; about 16 gallons of boiled linseed oil;

 

(6) The oil to be well boiled Linseed but if it should not be sufficiently boiled, it is to be boiled to a proper Consistency

 

(D) Secondary Paint Formula

 

(1) Red lead or other proper paint can be added to Spanish Brown in order to enliven it, if necessary

 

(E) Turpentine

 

(1) Eleven bottles of Spirits of Turpentine

 

1799 [126]


(1) Add 2 barrels of fish oil to 65 gallons of linseed oil;

 

(2) Ration the lead to oil as 500 1/2 pounds to approximately 100 gallons.

 

1808 [127]

 

(1) Add 32 gallons of fish oil to 29 1/2 gallons of linseed oil.

 

1812 [128]

 

(1) Allow oil, in brass or copper kettles, to simmer or boil very gently over a slow fire until clarified;

 

(2) Purchase white lead in a dry state, finely grind it, and mix it with a colour before combining it with boiled linseed oil;

 

(3) Ensure that the mixture was not so thick as to clog the brush, or so thin as to run upon the board.

 

                                                               (2) WHITEWASH

 

1743, 1770, 1826[129]

 

(1) Dissolve 1 pound of quicklime in 1 pint of clear water;

 

(2) Bring to a boil;

 

(3) Add sufficient water, stirring continually, to produce the consistency of milk;

 

(4) For darkened walls and ceilings, apply several coats (usually 3 or 4), so when dry, the un‑desired dark or russet colour is completely covered;

 

(5) A superior whitewash is less apt to peel than those made from whitening and size;


(6) It is better to apply two thin coats coats rather than one thick one.

 

                                              (3) BOUND WATER-BASED PAINT ‑

                                                           COMMON WHITING

 

1755, 1770, 1836 [130]

 

 

(a) Make up a paste by soaking pounded whiting [any white material made from a clay or chalk base] in a bucket half filled with clear water, for about 2 hours;

 

(b) Make up a black liquid by adding lamp black to some water;

 

(c) To the whiting paste, add a small amount of the liquid lamp black (to give it a more less dark tint and to keep the white paint from later turning reddish, (and turpentine to hasten its drying time);

 

(d) Heat up this mixture, together with a quantity of weakened, animal glue (jelled glue heated up together with a small quantity of water), just enough of which to prevent the paint from rubbing off onto clothing, but not so much glue as to encourage paint peeling;

 

(e) Strain the mixture;                           

 

(f) Always apply each coat of paint warm (but never having boiled ‑[so that the sizing will flow freely]), but only after each coat has dried (to prevent scaling): 2 whiting coats if the final coat is white; prime with 1 or 2 whiting coats if the final coat is not white;

 

(g) Use a boar's hair brush;

 

(h) When the paint is dry, polish the surface either

 

(i) by wetting it down with a brush, and rubbing it with a cloth on the end of a stick;

 

(ii) or by rubbing it with horsetail before it dries;

 


(i) If the final coats are to be in colour, wet the chosen pigment in water, grind it, mix it with some water, add the colour liquid to the whiting paste (minus the liquid black), and heat with the glue as above;

 

(j) Paint the polished whiting surface.


 

                                                                            (I)

 

                                                LOUISBOURG: PAINT SOURCES

 

General

 

Paint, as a component of building construction, suffered the same chequered history in its use at Louisbourg for many of the same reasons as did other building components. For example, a fortification contractor, wanting to exploit local resources as much as possible, often encountered supply problems caused by island and imported shortfalls. In turn, this affected his work on his public construction commitments at Louisbourg.[131] Public construction included all King's buildings as well as all fortification works, in addition to features such as town streets and harbour works.

 

The private sector encountered the same problems too, and while they perhaps less articulated them, their impact upon construction was equally strong. For example, while the authorities might recommend slate roofs to private builders, the high initial cost of slate, combined with their resulting shortage, ensured the widespread use of wooden shingles on private structures.

 

France, Quebec, the French West Indies, Acadia, New England, and local island concerns were Louisbourg's main commodity suppliers for the materials of both public and private constructions.[132] Unfortunately, several factors doom to failure any attempt to accurately quantify Louisbourg's import/export trade balance, let alone to isolate building materials in such an equation. Even in the best of recorded years, like 1742 and 1743 when few ships were missed, other mitigating reasons rule against such an attempt.

 

For one reason, the extant records of the offices of the Commissaire‑Ordonnateur and Admiralty, which, in different ways, recorded shipping activity, are disappointingly incomplete for most years, either because the records are lost, or because the recording techniques were poor. Notwithstanding, even if the records were complete, private cargoes ‑ in the case of France, perhaps as much as 1/3 of all imports from that place ‑ came designated as beyond Louisbourg official purview.[133]

 


Into this unrecorded category too fell the building materials which fortification contractors (both general and special) privately procured in France (and partially or completely sent freight free to Louisbourg) to meet their tender obligations. While the Crown, out of its fortification account, paid the contractor for construction expenses, and the Engineer drew up the detailed construction plans and specifications, generally it was the contractor's responsibility to procure, store, and stockpile the construction materials that he would need for actual construction.[134]

 

Besides in France, fortification contractors purchased buildings materials either (or both) locally or from other outside sources. When his purchases, for example, were of a New England origin, they too went largely unrecorded..[135] Significantly, New England was a supplier of enormous amounts of construction materials, not only to the fortification regime, but to the private sector as well.

 

On the other hand, sufficient records do exist to particularize and suggest the range of commodities that any Louisbourg builder had available to him.[136] For example, like the fore‑mentioned shipping records, the yearly inventories of the King's Magasin also details individual materials (under assorted headings, including merchandises), whether on‑hand, where procured (by ship from France or Canada, or locally), and how much consumed or sold.

 

In addition the yearly financial statements (Bordereaux) of receipts and expenses incurred by the Government and the Military itemized a variety of locally and outside procured building materials which would have been available to any builder. When combined with the various public and private tendering and construction contracts (but not with the so‑far‑ undiscovered account books of the many fortification and private contractors of Louisbourg), with the substantial number of estate inventories, and with the general construction comments of the various engineers, they form a vast comment on the types of building materials in use at Louisbourg.[137]  


 

                                                                            (J)

 

                                                   LOUISBOURG: PAINT TYPES

 

General

 

According to Yvon LeBlanc, former Restoration Architect to the Louisbourg project, the common colours for private wooden buildings in Louisbourg, based on his experience and available evidence, might have been 40% red, 30% yellow, 20% white, and 10% grey. For masonry constructions, however, white, grey or stone coloured ochres may have been more common.[138]

 

During the 19th Century, Louisbourg was one of the areas of Nova Scotia which supplied ochres, umbers, or wad.[139]

 

                                                         (1) OIL‑BASED PAINTS

General

 

There are no mention of painters as an occupation, at Louisbourg, although other trades did practice the art. For example, ..... Le Vasseur, Admiralty, employed Charles‑Yves‑Duval, a joiner, whose inventory of 1733 included paints.

 

To date, the Louisbourg archaeological collection has identified three pieces of wooden items: Fragments from 2 shingles and of a wooden panel tapered to fit into a frame. Shingle fragment 1L.33D22.3 a,b had traces of blue paint, shingle fragment 51L.12D2.1 had red paint, and fragment 1L.33EE3.4 (1740 ‑ 1745) was painted oil based red one side, and either black, but more more likely, lead white pigment [oil based] the other.[140]

 

(2) BOUND WATER‑BASED PAINTS

(DISTEMPER, WHITING, OR CALCIMINE)

 

General


Those several inventories for the Magasin General, which included whiting (blanc d'Espagne) and glue (colle), strongly suggest the mixing and use in Louisbourg of a type of distemper paint known today as calcimine.

 

(3) LIME‑BASED PAINTS

(WHITEWASH OR LIMEWASH)

 

General

 

Louisbourg military and civil contracts and specifications were clear: whitewashing (blanchisage d'un lait de chaux) was the common method of painting. According to a 1753 specification, the whitewashing of roughcast walls required 2 coats of limewash, made from quicklime preferably slaked the same day, or at the worst, the preceding day. The second coat, to which glue had been added as a sizing, so that it would not rub rub off, was to be applied only after the first had dried.[141]

 

Other than the use of glue in the second coat, the Fortification Contractor no doubt used the same limewash formula throughout the period from 1727 ‑ 1753, when the last contract was raised. His charge back varied only slightly: 15 sols per square toise, 1727 ‑ 1737, 12 sols 1737 ‑ 1742 ‑ [1745?]; 15 sols 1749 -[142]

 

At Louisbourg, archaeological evidence has confirmed the documentary references to whitewashes. For example, the brick vaulted ceiling of the extension to the Commissaire‑Ordonnateur's residence was whitewashed. [143]

 


In addition, archaeology has found several whitewashed (with little or no sizing) lime‑based plaster [crépi or enduit] artefacts. Interestingly, the preliminary colour findings of archaeology (using a hand‑held lens) differ somewhat from those of the lab (which used a microscope), even though both referred to a Munsell Colour chart as a common reference point. As well, according to the lab report, the limewash (which consisted of calcium carbonate (with a small clay content) and was similar in composition to the plaster fragments themselves, less, of course, its (Si02) sand content) contained no pigments, and while its grey and black layers were due to the probable presence of charcoal [lamp black?], its brown layer was due to a high (si) sand content. Also, according to the lab report, brush‑strokes were evident on most layers, suggesting a rather thick application, but decorative over‑painting was not apparent.

 

(1) Plaster fragment 2L10C2.1;

 

(a) Preliminary: 3 white base coats, one warm to neutral grey, then 2 coats of white ‑ decorative over‑painting;

 

(b) Lab: Cream, white, beige, cream, cream, grey, beige, white;

 

(2) Plaster fragment 2L10C2.2;

 

(a) Preliminary: Same as 2L10C2.1;

 

(b) Lab: Yellow, cream, white, cream, white, grey, black, grey, cream, white;

 

(3) Lath plaster fragment 17L22E3.1;

 

(a) Preliminary: white base coat, warm or neutral grey finish coat;

 

(b) Lab: Grey, grey;

 

(4) Lath plaster fragment 17L22E3.2;

 

(a) Preliminary: white base coat, cool grey with extremely dark grey band decorative motif;

 

(b) Lab: Black, grey, brown.[144]


 

                                                                           (K)

 

                                     LOUISBOURG: RECONSTRUCTION PAINTS

 

1989, December 18 (after)

 

                                          BARRACKS AND GOVERNOR'S WING:

                                 THE EXTERIOR PAINT COLOUR FOR WINDOWS

                                           (Revision to Memo of December 18, 1989)

 

                                                                 By Eric Krause

 

 

                                                                         NOTE:

                                              This memo addresses the window question

                              only, and should not be used out of context should the colour of

                             other features, such as doors for example, be called into question

 

SUMMARY FOR THE BARRACKS AND GOVERNOR'S WING

 

(1) Window exteriors                ‑ red

 

(2) Window interiors                             ‑ red or white as indicated

 

(a) Soldiers's quarters   ‑ red

           

(b) Officers's Kitchen    ‑ red

           

(c) Governor's Kitchen             ‑ red

 

d) Governor's Wing                  ‑ white

 

(e) Officers' Quarters    ‑ white

 

(f) Chapel                                 ‑ white

 

NOTE: See the memo of June 5 below for specific instructions on location: Sash, frame, lintel, and sill

 

THE EVIDENCE

 


The [Structural Design] Committee Minutes of April 20 and 21, 1967 were quite clear: "Sash and frames to be painted both sides using red ochre mixed as per specifications received from France. Hinges will be the same colour as sash."[145] Yet, on May 26, 1969, we learn from a memo of Superintendent John Lunn to the Construction Manager that:

 

in discussion with M. Palardy who was, as you know, charged with the basic responsibility for the interior décor in the furnished rooms, it became very clear that he was quite insistent upon the necessity for painting the interior windows in white. This applies to the upper lintel and the window and window frame, but not the lower sill [to which Lunn gave his authorization to proceed: i.e. the painting in white of the interior window frames and upper lintels of all rooms [hence including the Chapel south of the central passage].[146]

 

Lunn's memo had been in response to R.G. Harmer's (Construction Manager's) objection to the use of white paint. Harmer's recollection was that there had been a definite decision to use red paint. Consequently, he now wanted direct authorization reversing that long‑drawn out decision.[147]

 

On June 5, 1969, we read the major attempt to clarify the barracks and Governor's wing paint controversy:

 

... It was decided to paint all exposed wood, except on roofs and rafters, with the red‑ochre presently in use .... Doors or windows that open outward will be painted on both sides, but painting will otherwise be restricted as nearly as possible to exterior surfaces, leaving the interior unpainted .... In the case of the Governor's Wing, officer's quarters, and Chapel, the interior of the windows will be painted white. This will include the lintel and frame of each window, but not the sill. Windows and shutters in the officers' and Governor's kitchen and throughout the soldiers' wing are to remain red .... The red‑ochre paint will be applied generally over hardware as well as wood ..... The fixed hardware on the windows of the Chateau will be painted over in white ....[148]

 

Notwithstanding, according to the historian, Blaine Adams:

 


The Barracks of the King's Bastion .... 1. Windows should not be painted red or white ....[149]

 

And so ended all discussion!


 

2001, February 2

 

                                         STRUCTURAL DESIGN TEAM MINUTES

 

                                                      EXTERIOR HOUSE‑PAINT

 

                                                                    (1713-1758)

 

                                                                 By Eric Krause

 

                                                                          2001

 

                                                            B 212 180 (b) - 180 (q)

                                                               [January 24, 1966]

 

ITEM (03)

 

[Barracks]

 

The historical researchers, on the other hand, based their findings on a large number of plans collected in various parts of the world and from "toisés" or work specifications and other documents. Some of the points which we were able to ascertain through this process include: ...

 

(j) specifications for paint (dark red - exterior woodwork)

 

B 212 219 - 221

May 25, 1966

[May 27, 1966: Dated]

 

 

ITEM (07)

 

[Barracks]

 

(F) In the event of the doors being painted (the exterior of the doors were so treated by the French) that chemical wood preserver be used

 

B 213 15 - 16

April 20, 1967

April 21, 1967

(April 25, 1967: Dated)

 

 ITEM (01


... Glazing was approved as per sample installed in Governor's Wing. Mr. Way thought that it could be "a more professional looking job". Mr. Calvert had previously said he thought it should be somewhat less finished. It was the general opinion that the glazing, as being done by our carpenter crew, was suffificently authentic. Sash and frames are to be painted both sides using red ochre mixed as per specifications received from France. Hinges will be painted the same colour as sash

 

B 213 22 - 25

May 25, 1967

(May 31, 1967: Dated)

 

(Q) Painting: All exterior woodwork shall be allowed to weather before pentoxing and painting. The following scheme shall be followed

 

(a) exterior shutters of office and room above the office shall be pentoxed and painted both sides

 

(b)remaining exterior shutters and exterior doors shall be pentoxed both sides and painted outside

 

(c) interior woodwork shall receive no pentox or paint, but it shall be band sawn or jack planed as shown in drawings

 

B 213 47

November 15, 1967

(November 16, 1967: Dated)

 

ITEM (03)

 

The historical documents indicated that painting of the King's Bastion was done at a much later date, well after the installation of the shutters. Mr. Calvert mentioned that during his visit to France to study the fortifications, he noticed that very little paint was used on the shutters and that most of the hardware was not painted at all and was kept in a natural rustic way. Mr. Lunn suggested that we paint the hinges and pintles in a different colour, say black, rather than the reddish colour which is being used for shutters. Mr. Harmer pointed out that several tests had been made in regard to what colour scheme should be followed for painting the shutters and the results of these tests suggested present painting methods. The Committee suggested that painting of the hardware be held up so that further studies could be made as to what colours would be most suitable for the hinges and pintles on the Chateau St. Louis. The following recommendations were made by the Committee:

 

RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) That all hardware in question should be given a coat of metal primer paint


 

B 214 97 - 98

June 3, 1969

(June 5, 1969: Dated)

 

ITEM (01)

 

PAINT: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) Following a review of Mr. Adams' memorandum on paint dated May 30, 1969, it was decided to paint all exposed wood, except on roofs and rafters, with the red ochre presently in use. Work will begin with the Chateau and King's Bastion, moving out to include all of the King's buildings in the restored area. Doors or windows that open outward will be painted on both sides, but painting will otherwise be restricted as nearly as possible to exterior surfaces, leaving the interior unpainted. Exterior postern doors will be painted grey or off-white as camouflage to blend with the appearance of the walls themselves, but interior postern doors will be painted red ochre.

 

(B) In the case of the Governor's Wing, officers' quarters, and Chapel, the interior of the windows will be painted white. This will include the lintel and frame of each window, but not the sill. Windows and shutters in the officers' and Governor's kitchen and throughout the soldiers' wing  are to remain red. Interior white paint will match the paint applied to the panelling of the Cabinet: Pittsburgh Paint Co. No. 37 P 23.

 

(C) The red ochre paint will be applied generally over hardware as well as wood, as recommended in Mr. Adams' memorandum. The fixed hardware on the windows of the Chateau will be painted over in white, and window pulls are to be installed on all windows before painting, if possible.

 

(D) Free-standing ironwork, such as that in the Chateau tower and the Governor's balcony, will be painted black. An experiment will be conducted, mixing lamp black with nut oil as well as linseed oil to test effect. Curtain fixtures made of iron in the Chateau will also be painted black. The hardware on interior doors will remain unpainted for the present.

 

(E) Wooden stair treads in the Chateau will be treated with a clear scalant to retard wear. The Construction Manager and Conservator will direct a letter to the Research Council inquiring further about this matter. [J. Fortier, Head of Research].

 

B 217 246 - 249

December 8, 1970

 


Dauphin Demi-Bastion Phase F: Main Gateway Double Doors and Roadway Finished Grades

 

RECOMMENDATIONS

 

The Design Team agreed to Mr. Harmer's suggestion, viz,

 

(i) If the door is painted, then it could be constructed of spruce or pine

 

B 218 127 - 134

May 14, 1971

June 11, 1971

 

ITEM (03)

 

GENERAL CONSTRUCTION: SUB-ITEM

 

(a): EXTERIOR WALL FINISH: RECOMMENDATIONS: Crepi-thin pointed. [BASIS: Plan 1753-1].SUB-ITEM

 

(b): INTERIOR FINISH (DISPLAY AREA ONLY): RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) Wall ( exterior) smoothed with colored plaster as per fortress sample (greyish?) then white washed. [BASIS: Document "D" replacing clay for plaster].

 

(B) Partitions - pine planks 2 pouces thick planed both sides - tongue and groove joints, baseboards. [BASIS: Document "D"].

 

(C) Floors (ground floor) surface to be planks planed one side - tongue and groove joints, two nails per floor joists - random widths and lengths. [BASIS: Document "D" and team recommendation].

 

(D) Ceiling - exposed hewn joists with quarter round mouldings - underneath of first floor planking to be exposed - planed - tongue and groove joists. [BASIS: Document "A"].

 

(E) Fireplace to be surfaced with plaster and white washed. [BASIS: Document "A"]

 

B 219 195 - 197

September 10, 1971

 

 ITEM (08)

 

 FINISH SCHEDULE: RECOMMENDATIONS


Acceptable with one exception - Note - "pertaining to the painting of exterior woodwork", to be revised to exclude the fascia board.

 

B 220 134 - 141

August 17, 1972

 

Benoist House

 

ITEM (04)

 

WALLS: SUB-ITEM

 

(a): EXTERIOR: RECOMMENDATIONS

 

(A) Supporting walls - picquet

 

(B) Exterior surface finish - plastered (lime/sand)

 

(C) Interior surface finish - plastered (lime/sand). The use of whitewash for both (A) and (C) is possible

 

[BASIS: 1733 inventory. Some "as found" evidence, further excavations required. B.Dunn's report on Block 2, Page 90. See Historical Data report, Item Numbers 7c and 9d which was given a credibility of "C" from the 1733 inventory. Further research is required for this item.

 

 

                                                                   B 223 11 - 14

                                                                January 17, 1975

 

ITEM (01)

 

DISCUSSION

 


It was made clear that this is a first exploratory meeting to examine Louisbourg information available to date (in order to invite comments) and indicate some guidelines for a preliminary proposal. Note: This is a first step towards a study of general street scape of Louisbourg restoration. A survey of Louisbourg sources indicates that houses were, at the most, very seldom painted. It is more likely that whitewashing was more often used [BASIS: Pouyez's report on paints]. The known importation of paints cannot be conclusive since some of it could have been re-exported. Even in military buildings, painting is more often mentioned with relation to windows, doors, trim, etc. as well as gun carriages and other equipment. However, Design Team agrees that painting or whitewashing are not excluded completely since so little is known about most houses, and that any exterior finish to be used should reflect the fact that paint was not abundant and relatively costly. It is not impossible that material meant for the military might have found its way to the private sector on occasions. There is nothing to indicate that shingled roofs were painted although there is evidence in secondary sources of tile and slate- colored paint used for shingles.

 

ITEM (02)

 

Tentative recommendations for the houses built to date:

 

RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) Grandchamp House and Inn: Possibly whitewash with some flaking to show age and not too good condition of building. Windows, doors, shutters, etc. probably not painted, or maybe traces of old paint [BASIS: Early buildings].

 

(B) Lartigue I (Block 46): Painted charpente (possibly "wood color") and contrasting windows, doors and trim. Exposed stone with full joints [BASIS: Mentioned as a better class house].

 

(C) Lartigue II (Block 2): Exposed tone. Unpainted windows, doors, trim, etc. [BASIS: 1753 document (1753-1). New building used as an inn 62, Vol. 187, f. 183 November 13, 1743].

 

(D) LaRiviere Inn (Block 2): Better maintained whitewash for protection of piquet fill. Windows, doors, trim probably painted, contrasting color [BASIS: Owner -Innkeeper].

 

(E) Benoist House (Block 2): Exposed lime and sand mortar on piquet - No whitewash (?). Painted windows, doors, trim, etc. [BASIS: Inventory mentions coating but not whitewash].

 

(F) Carrerot I (Block 2): Unpainted charpente with whitewashed lime mortar coating on piquet. Painted windows, doors, trim, etc.

 

(G) Rodrigue House (Block 17): Whitewash south gable and stone fill. Exposed wood charpente. Painted windows, doors, trim, etc. Piquet Magasin: No finish.

 

(H) LaPerelle House (Block 17): Revetment exposed. Painted doors, windows, trim, etc. Magasin: No finish.

 

(I) DuHaget House (Block 17): Revetment painted; possibly yellow ochre with red ochre doors, windows and trim [BASIS: 1753 agreement could mean previous painting. 20 Juillet 1753; 63, Carton 2041 s, pièce 41]


(J) DeGannes House (Block 17): Whitewashed revetment with contrasting doors, windows and trim

 

(K) Bigot House (Block 2) and Engineer's House: Red ochre exposed woodwork [BASIS: Government buildings].

 

ITEM (03)

 

COLORS: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

 (A) After short discussion, it was recommended not to decide too definitely on color schemes except that we could use fairly strong ones and; of course, stick to colors mentioned in documents and propose mixing our own, to ensure variety in shades. Notes: After comments have been received, a proposal for colored street elevations will be made as a basis for further discussion. There is sufficient information available for various secondary sources concerning ingredients and mixing

 

                                                                   B 224 92 - 94

                                                                    May 7, 1976

 

NARRATIVE:

 

Painting of exterior woodwork - the Chairman suggested we should start with the King's Buildings which were still to be painted and that the committee would only be concerned with the exterior at this time. The Committee reviewed and discussed all available historical data on paint to date and based on the 18th century store inventories, the following paint schedule was developed [BASIS: See attached historical data and inventories, B. Adams memorandum, May 30, 1969].

 

ITEM (01)

 

KING'S BASTION AREA:

 

SUB-ITEM (a): KING'S BASTION GUARDHOUSE (PLACE OF ARMS): RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) All exterior woodwork undercoated with white paint [BASIS: (Simulated white lead)].

 

(B) All exterior woodwork painted with a finish coat, red ochre: Porch frame, rafter ends including underside of roof boards up to shingles, exterior doors, shutters, window sash

 

(C) Porch floor, door sills, window sills: boiled linseed oil.


SUB-ITEM (b): ALL SORTIE GATES: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

            (A) Undercoated with white paint; finish coat red ochre.

 

SUB-ITEM (c) KING'S BASTION DRAWBRIDGE: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) Decking: fixed bridge and bascule oiled with linseed

 

(B) Railing: undercoated with white paint; finish coat red ochre.

 

SUB-ITEM (d): KING'S BASTION BARBETTE: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) Oiled with linseed.

 

SUB-ITEM (e): BLOCK 1 AREA: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) Bakery Building, Artillerie (H.D.1), Magasin General, Ancien Magasin, Engineer's House: All exterior woodwork undercoated with white paint

 

(B) Finish coat: Red ochre for rafter ends including underside of roof boards up to shingles or slates, exterior doors, shutters, window sash. Note: sash in Engineer's House painted white for (finish coat). All window and door sills treated with linseed oil when made out of hardwood. All softwood to be painted: Dormant frame to be painted as well as sash.

 

SUB-ITEM (f): YARD GATES: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

 (A) Engineer's main gate, Bakery gate, Artillerie yard gate and small gate at Magasin General: undercoated with white paint; finish coat red ochre. Note: Artillerie yard post unpainted.

 

SUB-ITEM (g): ICE HOUSE: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) Exterior door painted only; undercoated with white paint. Finish coat red ochre.

 

SUB-ITEM (h): POSTERN TUNNELS (ALL AREAS):

 

All doors undercoated with white. All doors located at the exterior side (moat side) finish coat gray. Doors located on interior side of Bastion red ochre finish.

 

SUB-ITEM (i): DAUPHIN AREA: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 


(A) Dauphin barracks, Powder magasin, Soldiers' guardhouse, Officers' guardhouse - all exterior woodwork undercoated with white paint (normal white); finish coat red ochre, all rafter ends including underside of roof board up to shingle or slate; exterior doors, shutters, window sash, porch, including latrine door, all window and door sills oiled with linseed, when made out of hardwood. All softwood to be painted, interior shutters over loopholes are not to be painted.

 

SUB-ITEM (j): GUN PLATFORMS: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) All platforms are to be oiled with linseed.

 

SUB-ITEM (k): GUERITE (DAUPHIN): RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) All exposed exterior wood painted, one coat normal white (undercoat), finish coat red ochre.

 

SUB-ITEM (l): QUAY GUERITES: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) All exposed exterior wood painted one coat normal white (undercoat); finish coat red ochre.

 

SUB-ITEM (m): BIGOT HOUSE: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) All exterior woodwork undercoated with white paint (normal white); finish coat red ochre. Rafter ends including underside of roof boards up to slates or shingles, exterior doors, shutters. Note: Window sash not to be painted at this time.

 

SUB-ITEM (n): NOTE ON HARDWARE: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) all hardware painted black before installing and later on painted over with red ochre on most of the King's buildings [BASIS: (Shopcoat)].

 

 

                                                                  B 224 98 - 101

                                                                         [1976]

ITEM (02)

 

The following domestic houses and outbuildings were discussed regarding their exterior finishes and the Full Committee agreed to the following:

 

(A) Lartigue I: Framework walnut stain; windows white paint (sashes and frames); doors linseed oil; shutters linseed oil.

 

(B) Lartigue II: Framework linseed oil; windows linseed oil; doors linseed oil; shutters linseed oil.

 


(C) LaRiviere Inn: Framework walnut stain; windows white paint (sashes and frames); doors walnut stain; shutters walnut stain.

 

(D) DeGannes House: Revetment linseed oil; windows white paint (sash and frame); door walnut stain; shutters walnut stain.

 

(E) Benoist: Exterior finish enduit finish only, not to be whitewashed; doors yellow ochre; windows white paint; shutters yellow ochre.

 

(F) Carrerot I: Windows white(?); shutters red ochre; framing walnut stain; door red ochre; fill (piquet) whitewashed.

 

(G) Carrerot Magasin: Doors linseed oil; shutters linseed oil.

 

(H) General Notes:

 

(i) Use of red ochre - The Full Committee decided that the red ochre coloring should be mixed on the site in order to give a variance in the shades

 

(ii) Use of walnut stain - The Full Committee decided that various brands of walnut stain should be sampled in order to give a variance in tones.

 

ITEM (03)

 

The meeting ended at 4:30 p.m. and Mr. Fortier set Thursday, 2:00 p.m., May 20, 1976 for the next meeting. Mr. Fortier also requested for review by Full Committee an elevation of the buildings above Rue Toulouse - East side - colored as close as possible to the recommendations before finalization is given to the schemes outlined above. To be submitted at next meeting. Note: Since these meetings, I have obtained samples of stains to be presented at next meeting. Have also tried a mixture of red ochre in linseed oil; it is practically indistinguishable from the sample of Olympic "Navaho" [Y. LeBlanc].

 

                                                                 B 224 209 - 212

                                                                October 21, 1976

 

NARRATIVE:

 


M. MacPhie made a brief statement. It was getting late in the season to do much, if any, exterior painting and there is no money available or allotted in this year's estimates. However, he would do all he could in the Dauphin Area, weather permitting. Undercoating (white lead) : The Committee discussed the use of a primer coat of white lead, but no satisfactory solution could be reached because of insufficient evidence or historical data [BASIS: See attached painting with oil, secondary sources. B. Adams' Report, May 30, 1969]. However, experiments can be carried out to find out the effects of weathering, such as discolourations on various painting techniques. These experiments would be carried out in the Dauphin Bastion Area (See Item 02).

 

ITEM (01)

 

AREAS TO BE PAINTED: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) Dauphin Drawbridge Lift Arm and Fixed Bridge Railing: Undercoated with boiled linseed oil (2 coats, if required) [BASIS: "Red Ochre" paint inventory, volume 24 for 1742-1743; B. Adams' report, May 30, 1969]. Finish coat "Red Ochre" paint composition. "Red Ochre" and boiled linseed oil adding more or less of the colour according to the shade desired (with some turpentine as a drier?). Footnote by Writer: Final colours should be checked on site for colour intensity before undertaking any painting over large areas.

 

(B) Drawbridge: All areas undercoated with boiled linseed oil (2 coats, if required). The latter would be studied for additional finish paint coat (colour) [BASIS: Linseed oil inventory (See above); the committee's main concern was preservation of exposed woodwork].

 

(C) Fixed Bridge and Sub-Structure: Same as above.

 

ITEM (02):

 

The Committee recommends that the minutes Item No. 9 (May 7, 1976) "Dauphin Area" should be revised and undercoating with white lead should be done in a few selected areas only, e.g. RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) Paint Experimental Area No. 1: Officers' Guardhouse window facing Eperon. Rough window frame and sash painted with white undercoat (white lead and boiled linseed oil). Two coats, if required, with finish coat of "Red Ochre" (See Paint Composition "Red Ochre", Item No. 1), whereas shutter is to be painted "Red Ochre" only (undercoated as well as finish coat). The undercoat would require more linseed oil [BASIS: To see if undercoat has any effect on colour or weathering quality].

 

(B) Paint Experimental Area No. 2: Dauphin Barracks: One window frame, sash, and shutter - undercoated with linseed oil. One window frame, sash, and shutter to be undercoated with "pentox" wood preservative [BASIS: To test effectiveness of pentox as against linseed oil]. Both windows are to be finished off with finish coat "Red Ochre". Footnote by Writer: Why not move Experiment No. 1 to the third window in Dauphin Barracks so that we could really compare the different weathering effects and paint the door with a 20th century paint sample, e.g., Olympic "Navaho".


ITEM (03)

 

RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) All other exterior painting for King's Buildings are pending experiments. Note: Minutes May 7, 1976 to be reviewed in spring of 1977.

 

ITEM (04)

 

EXTERIOR PAINTING OF DOMESTIC PERIOD BUILDINGS: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) The colour schemes for Rue Toulouse, reflecting as closely as possible to recommendations made on May 14, 1976 minutes, were presented and brought out many comments revealing the several grey areas we have to contend with

 

(i) how much paint there would have been available in the French Colony for domestic use

 

(ii) how little information there is in primary documents on paints for domestic usage

 

(iii) how much paint did the French use in the 18th century and to what extent was this reflected in Louisbourg

 

(iv) how much exterior painting was there done in Quebec in the period

 

(B) After much discussion about exterior painting habits, trends, the Committee decided to study the painting problem further, e.g., write to J. Richardson about painting in Quebec. Study documents, picture files, secondary sources, etc.

 

(C) Recorder's Note: These minutes include memoranda from individual committee members. Summaries will contain reactions, objections, and further recommendations, hopefully in that order.

 

                                                                   B 225 72 - 74

                                                                    July 7, 1977

 

ITEM (01)

 

PERIOD PAINTING TECHNIQUES AND COLOURS (DAUPHIN DEMI-BASTION):

 


A visual study was carried out by Design Committee on experiments of exterior painting technique at the Dauphin Bastion. The five different techniques were carefully studied, and the following comparisons were made [BASIS: Attached memorandum, March 25, 1977].

 

RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) Red Ochre over white lead causes a light spotty shine to the red ochre finish coat [BASIS: This is probably due to the white lead undercoat acting as a sealer].

 

(B) Red Ochre over boiled linseed produced similar effects as above with a little less shine [BASIS: Same reason as above, although here the hardwood at "Emboiture" seems to be an additional cause of sheen].

 

 (C) Red Ochre, pentox and Red Ochre, Olympic "Navaho" produced a matte finish with some color difference between the red ochre and olympic "Navaho" stain [BASIS: Color difference is minimal and might be caused by more or less exposure to sun].

 

            (D) The Team reviewed color slides made from original documents to study period colors. The documents, however, did not reveal any more evidence toward exterior painting. The following recommendation was made: Areas designated for painting in the Dauphin Complex to be treated with clear pentox and a finish coat of Red Ochre (Red Ochre and linseed oil) paint could be bought pre-mixed by local paint suppliers, or mixed on site, and each batch could have a little color difference [BASIS: Pentox as a wood preservator. "Red Ochre" paint inventory, Volume 24 (B. Adams report, May 30, 1969). The same thing would have occurred in the 18th century]. The Team was in favor of a little more towards the orange color Red Ochre rather than the present dominant dark Red Ochre. This could be corrected in the next paint order [BASIS: Based on office experiment using red ochre powder with linseed oil].

 

 (E) Note by Writer: Why pentox over boiled linseed oil - see previous recommendations.

 

                                                                 B 225 125 - 129

                                                                  March 9, 1978

 

NARRATIVE

 

DISCUSSION:

 

A continuing dialogue, and sporadic inquiries and recourse to incomplete evidence for Louisbourg, having thus far decided nothing in regard to painting of private buildings, a small team met to draft generalizations and guidelines for painting.

 


ITEM (01)

 

Do we have evidence for the absence of painting?

 

DISCUSSION: In detailed discussions of roof and board revetments, there is never any mention of painting. The Duhaget House may or may not have been painted all over; the trim alone may have been painted. We are resolved not to copy New England practice, where painting of houses became common by the 19th century, although perhaps not before. When the New Englanders arrived in Louisbourg, they remarked that it was a drab town. There is no mention of a painter as an occupation in Louisbourg, although this may mean that painting was done by other trades; for example, Charles-Yves Duval, a joiner, whose inventory in 1733 includes various references to paint. Duval, however, worked mainly inside buildings, specifically the LeVasseur House which was one of the wealthiest in town. In support of painting, we have the obvious need to preserve wood elements and amounts of paint pigments in inventories, both government and private, adequate for a fairly extensive application as trim. We do not assume that "trim" was an aesthetic concept as much as the most expensive part of many buildings - windows, doors, shutters, etc. - and therefore had priority in getting paint. We do not know the extent to which trim was painted as decoration, as part of a conscious colour scheme. We assume it is more likely that "trim" was not often a contrasting colour, or a highlight colour, merely for aesthetic reasons, although we should allow for this somewhere in the overall impression given by the buildings in town. With regard to common practice throughout Europe and England, we assume that wood members, particularly of charpente buildings, were stained in various brown colours. In such cases the trim should follow unless a reason can be found to the contrary. We also know that in at least one case wood was preserved by linseed oil. We do not know whether paint was applied over it.

 

ITEM (02)

 

Do we have a basis for the relative frequency of colours? Stains?:

 


DISCUSSION: On private buildings that were painted, we assume that the ratio would be, very roughly, more red than yellow ochre, more yellow ochre than white or grey - approximately 40%, 30%, 20% and 10% other colours, mainly green and blue. These ratios are based first on amounts reflected in Louisbourg inventories, second on the general appearance of European buildings in the 18th century as well as now. But we realize this is an arbitrary approach which may not reflect the situation in the less wealthy part of Louisbourg that is not being reconstructed. One exception to this ratio might be masonry buildings where white or grey, or a stone coloured ochre may be more common. We make this exception partly because of tradition, partly in order to avoid emphasizing "trim" as contrasting colour. In private buildings that had wood members stained, we will aim at roughly half having trim stained also, and half having the trim painted. We will assume that the majority of charpente buildings were stained in brown "brun de noix". At this point, we will assume that in Louisbourg whitewash was applied only to masonry and plaster (mostly inside buildings) and that its use does not affect the ratio of colours outlined above. We assume that a primer, if it was used, was more frequent on government buildings. The most common primer is Spanish white or white lead.

 

ITEM (03)

 

Are any buildings so old, or so modest, or are there any other reasons to suggest a building had no paint?

 

DISCUSSION: While there may be some, such as the Cassagnolles-Detcheverry House in Block 4, or the small building in the woodyard, none can be ruled out definitely.

 

ITEM (04)

 

Are there any attributes or characteristics to help assign colours or the use of colours to the buildings of specific people?:

 

DISCUSSION: This is a highly speculative exercise which can only begin after the preceding principles have been established. In theory, in at least some cases, we should be able to make informed guesses about owners, occupants or builders. If variety and randomness are to be seen in the overall effect, this is the only alternative to following our own whims. It may be less definite than we like, but at least it provides for the evidence to be followed in some fashion. The buildings for which we feel this is possible should be substantiated to the Committee. The person who does the research and writes the substantiation should recommend colours and their use according to his own interpretation. The meeting concluded with two immediate choices, to allow work to go ahead.

 

RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) DuHaget House shutters - red, a "safe choice" under the circumstances.

 


(B) Engineer's House, shutters and dormers a beige grey. The Superintendent offered as substantiation his interpretation of the engineer as a person of taste and aesthetic sensitivity, a moderate in his use of design elements and one who obviously wished to set himself apart from what was available in ordinary military housing. Assuming he would avoid the red common in government buildings, and bright colours as a matter of preference, a beige grey with white sashes would be a reasonable choice and a moderate statement about Verrier himself. In both cases, the paint used should be pigment mixed in linseed oil. The Engineer's House, at least, should be applied over a white primer. [J. Fortier].

 

                                                                 B 225 140 - 143

                                                                    April 7, 1978

 

ITEM (06)

 

PAINTING OF SHINGLES: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) This question was raised by Restoration Architect since it is mentioned in several secondary sources, that shingle roofs were painted. This should not be eliminated as a possibility for occasional occurrence at Louisbourg, within local limitations. No decision taken [BASIS: See L. Hoad report on shingles; also L. Hanson Archaeological Report No. 56].

 

                                                                 B 225 155 - 156

                                                                   July 16, 1978

 

ITEM (01)

 

PAINTING

 

It has been decided to proceed according to recommendations by M. LeBlanc:

 

            RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) Fauxbourg House: Walls: Whitewashed, 12" - 18" tar base; shutters and doors: Green (Mountain Green); window sashes and frames: White lead.

 

(B) Lartigue I: Charpente: Walnut stain (Olympic Oxford Brown); shutters and doors: Yellow ochre; window sashes and frames: White lead.

 

(C) Grandchamp Inn: Walls: Whitewashed with tar base (providing Archaeology has no evidence against).

 

(D) Grandchamp House: Walls: Boards linseed oiled.

 

(E) Both Buildings: Shutters and doors: Red ochre; window sashes and frames: White lead.

 

(F) Seigneur House: Walls: Whitewashed; shutters and doors: Red ochre; window sashes and frames: White lead; Charpente: Walnut stain.

 


(G) Benoist House: Walls: Enduit only; shutters and doors: Red ochre; window sashes and frames: Linseed oil.

 

(H) Carrerot House: Walls between Charpente: Whitewashed; shutters and doors: Green; window sashes and frames: White lead; charpente: Walnut stain.

 

(I) Rodrigue House: Walls between Charpente: Whitewashed; Charpente: Linseed oiled; doors, window sashes and frames: Red Ochre.

 

(J) Rodrigue Magasin: Walls, window frames and doors: Linseed oiled.

 

(K) DeGannes House: Walls: Oiled; window sashes and frames: Yellow Ochre; doors and shutters: White lead.

 

(L) DuHaget House: Doors and shutters: Red ochre; window sashes and frames: White lead.

 

(M) Colours:

 

(i) yellow ochre to approximate Olympic Stain No. 720, and/or Jack Speelman's samples No. 14 and No. 6

 

(ii) white lead was used routinely as a primer, but we will use an oil base paint where it will be covered

 

(iii) white lead paint will be used on window sashes, etc. where it will not be covered

 

(iv) yellow and red ochre will be acquired as soon as possible. Meanwhile we will continue using the Olympic stain for the red

 

(v) green to be a darkish colour (Mountain Green), made from yellow ochre and blue

 

(vi) when wood parts are oiled, it will usually be with boiled linseed oil

 

(vii) walnut stain will approximate Olympic Oxford Brown

 

(viii) all paint finishes should aim at a range between flat and glossy

 


(ix) window sashes will be treated the same inside as outside. Doors to be painted on the outside only for the time being. [John Fortier].

 

                                                                   B 226 49 - 51

                                                                   July 18, 1980

 

NARRATIVE:

 

On short notice, the Design Team members were assembled for the selection of paint colors for the remaining period buildings. The recommended color selections are as follows:

 

ITEM (01)

 

RODRIGUE HOUSE: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) Walls - whitewashed.

 

ITEM (02)

 

DE LA PERELLE HOUSE AND MAGASIN: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) Walls or revetment - linseed or fish oil; window sashes and frames - white lead; doors and shutters - yellow ochre.

 

ITEM (03)

 

DUHAGET HOUSE: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) Revetment - linseed oil.

 

ITEM (04)

 

BIGOT STABLES: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) Window sashes and frames - linseed oil; Charpente frame and piquet fill - whitewash; doors and shutters - linseed oil.

 

ITEM (05)

 

DUGAS HOUSE: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

            (A) Window sashes and frames - white lead; doors and shutters - linseed oil; Charpente frame - linseed oil; piquet fill - whitewash.

 

ITEM (06)


ICE HOUSE: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) Door - red ochre; eaves and rafter tails - red ochre [BASIS: Military building].

 

ITEM (07)

 

KING'S BASTION GUARDHOUSE: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) Window sashes and frames - linseed oil; doors and shutters - red ochre [BASIS: Military building].

 

ITEM (08)

 

TRANSFORMER BUILDING: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) As is.

 

ITEM (09)

 

LARTIGUE II: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) Window sashes and frames - linseed oil; doors and shutters - linseed oil.

 

ITEM (10)

 

FREDERIC GATE: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) The color of cream color stone - something like the walls of my office [BASIS: To represent typical stone facade (color); very common in France: period and present].

 

ITEM (11)

 

DE LA PLAGNE HOUSE: EXTERIOR WOODWORK: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) Yellow ochre.

 

ITEM (12)

 

DE LA VALLIERE HOUSE AND MAGASIN: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

            (A) Shutters and doors - walnut stain; revetment - linseed oil; window sashes and frames - white lead; principal frame and trim - walnut stain.

 


ITEM (13)

 

ENGINEER'S HOUSE: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) Window and dormer sashes - white ochre; window frames - yellow ochre; doors - yellow ochre. Note: Due to new "as found" evidence by Archaeology, these color selections are pending, additional research and investigation required. See comments by A. Crépeau and E. Krause. Note: Majority of basis are strictly Design Team recommendations and conjectures.

 

ITEM (14)

 

The question of roofs was also discussed briefly:

 

There are period references to red and black being used on shingles [BASIS: See previous minutes].

 

                                                                 B 226 114 - 118

                                                                January 27, 1983

 

PAINTING OF ROOFS

 

RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) Restoration Architect brought up this matter again, since there is some, although limited, evidence for it happening occasionally, even in Louisbourg sources [BASIS: Artifacts: 1L33D22.3a, b (Traces of blue) and S1L.1202.1 (red)].

 

(B) Shingles were not in common use in France, except on secondary buildings and in wooded regions (Alps, etc.), but seemed to be sometimes protected by paint: red or black and every two years are mentioned [BASIS: Liger: Nouvelle Maison Rustique, Volume 1, Page 38: Oil Paint; Bullet: Architecture Pratique (1780 ed.) red or black every two years; Viollet-Le-Duc: Dict. Volume II, Page 117: Sometimes painted red or blue-black Monroe (1780), Page 164 ... Paint every 2 years].

 

B 227 09 - 11

July 12, 1984

 

ITEM (02)

 

BARRACKS CHIMNEYS: RECOMMENDATIONS:

 


(A) Due to continuous problem of water leakage around the majority of chimneys on the Barracks building, the Design Team puts forward a recommendation to spray a water repellen (K-154) on the existing brick chimneys and then whitewash them. This is a tentative recommendation, pending further research by the Archivist into the historical documentation of repairs to the Barracks building [BASIS: Design Team recommendation].

 

 

                                                                   B 227 30 - 37

                                                                 March 28, 1985

 

ITEM (13)

 

BIGOT PERIOD STORM WINDOWS - PAINT COLOR SELECTION:

 

RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) The Design Team recommends that storm windows be painted white, interior and exterior faces (see revised paint schedule dated January 26, 1981 and Design Team minutes of October 21, 1980 attached). During this discussion, it was noted that a discrepancy exists on site as to the colors selected for the interior face of the window sashes. Some sashes have been painted the same color as the walls and this must have occurred in the field, probably a verbal decision made by either the Restoration Architect or the Head of Exhibits. These decisions were never logged in minute form. E. Krause to check with Head of Exhibits for basis and rationale [BASIS: Design Team Approval Request No. 12-85, 15/03/85; Full Committee decision].

 

                                                                 B 227 121 - 125

                                                                January 22, 1987

 

ITEM (06)

 

PAINT - RAFTER TAILS/EAVES - KING'S BASTION BARRACKS:

 

                        DISCUSSION:

 

Approval requested to proceed with painting of rafter tails and eaves.

 

                                    RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) Approval given to proceed with painting same in red ochre but also recommended that further investigation of the availability of 18th century period paint be carried out.

 

                                                                 B 227 132 - 138


                                                                 March 26, 1987

 

SUB-ITEM (f)

 

PAINT - RAFTER TAILS/EAVES - KING'S BASTION BARRACKS:

 

RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) Although approval was given by the Design Team Committee to proceed with painting on the King's Bastion Barracks, further ongoing investigation of period paints and methods has been recommended once again by Historical Resources personnel.

 

                                                                 B 227 153 - 156

                                                               September 2, 1987

 

REVIEW OF REPAIRS (RECAP) TO LARTIGUE I AND DES ROCHES HOUSE: SUB-ITEM (a): DES ROCHES HOUSE:

 

DISCUSSION:

 

Engineering and Works request approval to complete repairs on all structural members and sills either below grade or just at grade level using pressure treated wood with incisor marks. On all exposed piquet, it was recommended by L. Wadden that we proceed with fully-treated green wood. On an experimental basis, it was found that whitewash will not adhere to the green color (i.e., washes off in rain). Therefore, a suggestion was made to have the green wood treated with a product called Kilz which will adhere to the green color and enable whitewashing to be carried out effectively thereafter. There is also a problem in finding a supplier. Marwood in Brookfield can supply the materials at a cost of approximately $20/piece treated. They can supply us with machine peeled piquet (not treated) for approximately $6.50/piece.

 

RECOMMENDATIONS:

 

(A) It was recommended that the samples of machine peeled piquet being forwarded to Louisbourg along with another shipment of materials for the De La Plagne be reviewed by Design Team members to ascertain if it will meet our requirements.

 

                                                                   B 228 16 - 20

                                                              September 14, 1988

 

NOTE:

 


... Rain Water Gutter Brackets Request Approval requested to paint the gutter brackets in red ochre to match rafter tails. Design Team Recommendation Approval given by Design Team to proceed with painting of gutter brackets in red ochre.

 

                                                                 B 228 157 - 163

                                                               February 25, 1991

 

 

(i) Whitewash Composition/Sizing

 

H. Antle and S. Myers to take a look at some of the whitewash areas on site to see where the whitewash is failing. H. Antle's investigation to date has only turned up a synthetic type sizing. S. Myers has some information that is available but she would like to see some areas on site first before she can provide information on a suitable product. S. Myers was informed about the water- proofing application (K-154) presently in use and has requested a data product sheet on same. (Basis: Restoration Architect's Recommendation) ...

 

(iii) [Block 1] Magasin General - Painting

 

H. Antle indicated to the Restoration Architect, S. Myers, that the areas he has covered on site with linseed oil have not turned black; his procedure involves a boiled linseed oil with turps (no pigments), which just penetrates the wood and "silvers down" in a natural way. But, some areas on site are turning quite black, even those not exposed to sunlight and, subsequently, more research is required. Will be further looked into by S. Myers and H. Antle. (Basis: D.T. Recommendation)

 

                                                                 B 228 187 - 195

                                                                   April 18, 1991

 

(a) Whitewash

 


Composition and Sizing In review of published material and following discussions with E. Krause and H. Antle, S. Myers advised that, although isinglass is referred to in the Louisbourg Painter's Manual as being one of the most popular glues used in the 18th century, it was a high quality fish glue, valued because it was clear and colours could be mixed with it. It would never have been used in whitewash. H. Antle has obtained hide glue, suitable for use in whitewash. It the observation of S. Myers at the [Block 2] Bigot House [Commissaire-Ordonnateur's Residence - Demesy Residence] that where the whitewash is not standing up well, there is a moisture problem. She suggested that rather than doing a complete across-the-site change in whitewash, one particular area be selected and a small amount of hide glue used in whitewash on an experimental basis with results to be evaluated over the next year. It was suggested that the area just inside the main door of the Bigot House to the right (up to the first partition) be used as this would be a good area to see the comparison. The [Block 2] Destouches House was suggested as a second test area. E. Krause to provide more historical information on whitewash by next Design Team Meeting. Following discussion on concerns about paint use at Louisbourg today, a special Design Team meeting on the subject of Paints and Finishes was scheduled for Wednesday, May 29th, at 9:30 A.M. in the Training Room. The main objectives of this meeting will be to discuss the extent of use, types of paints and finishes, whether they provide a protective function, and colours. This meeting is to give us a start to discussion and a context for future meetings/decisions ...

 

 (i) Flat White Exterior Paint

 

The painters, manual and Design Team Minutes were reviewed by S. Myers; previous minutes following paint discussions (1978) indicated that "all paint finishes should aim at a range between flat and glossy". All indications are that the 18th- century oil-based paint would have gone on glossy and flattened out over a period of several years. H. Antle has received some information from Old Village Paints in Peterborough; an exterior "soft sheen" is available from this company and a local distributor can be contacted in the Sydney area. At a cost of $50/$53 a gallon (which would cover approximately 600 - 700 sq. ft.), there would be no cost increase over what we are now using (which covers only approximately 400 sq. ft.). It is a non-chalking paint and samples could be provided upon request. This item will be raised at the special paint meeting to be held on May 29th. Samples will be obtained and tested. However, at this time, we will discontinue our search for a flat exterior oil-base paint.

 

                                                                 B 228 223 - 233

                                                                   June 12, 1991

 

Paint PURPOSE:

 

1. Special Paint Meeting

 

The main objectives of this special paint meeting are to discuss:

 

- the extent of use of paints and other finishes,

 

- types of paints and finishes,

 

- whether they provide a protective function, and

 

- colours.

 

This meeting was intended to give us a start to discussion and a context for future meetings/decisions. This introductory meeting should give us a sense as to what material and information we need to gather to provide a basis for future decisions.

 


To begin discussion of the extent of use, E. Krause elaborated on his report on paints, whitewashes and other finishes; report still in the "Draft" stage. This report has been compiled over the past three years and includes a great deal of information which was not available when decisions were made in circa 1978 re painting of reconstructed buildings at Louisbourg. Eric began by stating that, as we are illustrating the 1744-1745 period on site, we are showing a period when a supply problem appears to have existed for paint/paint materials at Louisbourg. Also, just as the reconstructed buildings began to be painted only in the late 1970's when construction was nearing completion, so the original military buildings at Louisbourg appear to have been painted only when construction was well-advanced; there are no mentions of paint in engineering specifications til the later years. Exterior painting was used in England and France at the time as an attempt at preserving wood, but the only documentary evidence of painting on a private building exterior at Louisbourg is for the [Block 17] Duhaget House in the 1750's, when a lease stipulated that one coat of paint was to be applied by the owner and one the following year by its tenant.

 

W. O'Shea noted that it was outside the Design Committee's province to make interpretive changes or decisions, e.g. changing from the point-in-time approach. The Committee can make recommendations, but not decisions.

 

E. Krause extracted records from his report, showing quantities of linseed oil, white lead, yellow and red ochre, whiting, etc. which are listed in the inventory lists for the military stores. Quantities listed were quite small (see report). These lists provide accurate information for the King's Stores, but do not record materials brought in and out of Louisbourg by private merchants. They also do not indicate how the supplies were used - e.g. whether Admiralty supplies for painting ships would be included in the quantities shown, how much was used for maintenance of munitions, etc. One record shows whiting listed for artillery use and wet cooperage. Another document records a stipulation to oil all hardware, from 1736 on.

 

There is an official statement from the 1740's about the lack of paint at Louisbourg, by the Governor and Commissaire-Ordonnateur. However, it could refer to the final mixed product only. The officials were talking about wanting to paint "exposed wood" - i.e. exterior wood such as doors, windows, gun carriages, etc. - hence the painting of rafter tails on reconstructed buildings in the past 10 - 15 years.

 

Other records are also useful - e.g. records of a carpenter's (Duval's) estate show the quantities of paint and paint supplies he had on hand at the time of his death, when building an important [Block 23 LeVasseur] stone house for an Admiral in Louisbourg. Concerning cost of paint, E. Krause has some information on costs at various periods (see his report) but it needs to be correlated to information K. Donovan has assembled on the relative costs of common goods and materials.


S. Myers read short extracts from a thesis by T.Z. Penn to clarify meanings of terms (e.g. litharge) and the apparent availability of linseed oil at an early date on the Eastern Seaboard, due to flax's being grown for use in producing cloth. (Basis: "Decorative and Protective Finishes, 1750 - 1850; Materials, Process and Craft". APT Vol XVI No. 1 1984, Decorative Finishes)

 

E. Krause confirmed that documents/ records do not show the use which may have been made of common materials such as cod liver oil, softwood resins or tallow. Concerning whitewash, records show that it was in general use on stone interiors in the King's buildings, e.g. the King's Bastion Barracks and the [Block 13] hospital. There are no references to its use in contracts for construction of fortifications until 1727, but the fortifications were still being built. From 1727 onwards there are continuing references to interior whitewashing; the first recipe showing use of glue in the whitewash (second coat) is from 1753. A 1733 document re Ile Royale shows that the cost of whitewashing was included in the cost of interior roughcasting for a particular building. Therefore, whitewashing might occur without specific mention. Also, the cost of whitewashing was very low (see E. Krause's report).

 

                                                                 B 228 254 - 259

                                                                   July 18, 1991

 

PURPOSE: [Block 4] Delort

 

1 Storehouse.

 

 Discussion

 

The purpose of this meeting is to take a broad look at the exterior treatment, particularly on the North Storehouse ... S. Myers suggested that, since there is good evidence that by 1731 the North Storehouse was revetted with roughcast, an exposed charpente frame would appear to be the least historically accurate option. Discussion followed on the four options which had been identified in the Design Team Meeting of June 27, for the North Storehouse and link:

 

- exposed charpente frame in durable wood species (possibly white oak) unpainted;

 

- exposed charpente frame in pressure-treated wood, painted;

 

- wood revetment over charpente frame and piquet infill;

 

- roughcast revetment over charpente frame and attachment system ...

 

2. Recommendation


After considerable discussion, it was recommended by the Design Team (Basis: Historical View 1731-3b D.T. Recommendation) that an exposed charpente-frame of durable wood species with piquet infill be used for the present on the North Storehouse, and that experiments be conducted to achieve a durable roughcast for future (5-year or so) installation, with minor modifications in the framing details, etc. to improve durability

 

                                                                   B 244 17 - 25

                                                                January 23, 1992

 

(c) Painting of Windows - [Block 4] Delort I Storehouse

 

The paint schedule indicates a paint (Basis: D.T. Recommendation) finish for interior windows and frames; however, in the event this building could revert back to a period environment, it was recommended by the Design Team Committee that the interior of the sashes be left natural (treated with linseed oil and turps), while exterior of the sashes will be painted as in past

 

                                                                 B 244 143 - 159

                                                                   July 23, 1992

 

(ii) [Isle Du Quay] Chevalier Residence

 

b. Walls:

 

- replace framing to top plate level and piquet infill at rear walls, with changes to increase durability:

 

- replace existing spruce framing with pressure-treated framing, and continue to paint frame; ...

 

                                                                 B 244 247 - 253

                                                              December 17, 1992

 

(b) Review of Recap Drawings - [Isle Du Quay] Chevalier Residence

 

Recap drawings were tabled by S. Myers and reviewed by Committee members. Drawings reflect Design Team decisions made earlier this year:

 

- replacement of all framing below top plate on South and rear-yard elevations, replacement of sill plate on West elevation;

 

- wood species for charpente frame to be pressure-treated hemlock (painted);

 

                                                                 B 245 167 - 173


                                                              September 23, 1993

 

(e) PRELIMINARY DESIGN - WOODLOT BUILDING (BLOCK 17) [TRANSFORMER BUILDING]

 

... For the daub itself, S. Myers recommends a lime-based mortar daub because this building receives a low level of maintenance and also to ensure that we are concealing the modern transformer vault from visitors. Some discussion on the use of white-wash as an additional preventative against water penetration. Strong supportive evidence for whitewash on earth-based mortars. ...

 

                                                                   B 246 62 - 74

                                                                   May 05, 1994

 

(c) RECAP OF BEAUSEJOUR RESIDENCE (BLOCK 3) - PRELIMINARY DISCUSSION re Timber Order

 

Early decisions required on some paints, to allow timbers to be ordered soon ...

 

                                                                   B 246 75 - 83

                                                                   May 19, 1994

 

(a) BENOIST HOUSE (BLOCK 2) - RECAP

 

Some minor shrinkage cracks on west wall, may have occurred from base coat being too thick; should be filled when whitewash applied. L. Wadden advised whitewashing to be carried out tomorrow; whitewash to be period whitewash formula used on site:

 

(i) 25 kg. bag hydrated lime;

 

(ii) approx. 13 - 15 gal. sea water. Mix usually fairly heavy, but can be diluted with tap water to proper consistency when ready for use

 

                                                                   B 246 84 - 95

                                                                   June 02, 1994

 

(a) BENOIST HOUSE (BLOCK 2) - RECAP

 

S. Myers advised the whitewash has done a good job of filling the minor shrinkage cracks.

 

                                                                 B 246 145 - 153

                                                                 August 18, 1994

 

(f) RECAP OF BEAUSEJOUR RESIDENCE (BLOCK 3)


... S. Myers and L. Wadden to discuss timber orders as soon as possible. It was agreed to use pressure-treated exterior timber framing throughout, as the Quay wing would have interior finishes and the Etang wing would have at least a whitewash finish on interior. Timber frame to continue to be painted/stained on exterior.

 

                                                                 B 246 154 - 165

                                                              September 01, 1994

 

(h) RECAP OF BARON MAGAZIN (ILE DU QUAY)

 

... Design Team Committee recommended the following (re interior):

 

(i) pressure-treated framing members to be painted on exterior / whitewashed on interior;

 

(ii) piquet fill to be whitewashed (exterior and interior);

 

                                                                 B 246 204 - 210

                                                              November 24, 1994

 

(f) RAMP AT BARON MAGAZIN (ISLE DU QUAY)

 

During the dismantling of timber framing, considerable rot discovered in East wall top plate/end joist. In order to salvage existing gable wall framing c/w tenons into top plate, filler pieces proposed at top of corner posts for re-assembly. Design Team Committee agreed to interpret replacement as repair; filler pieces therefore acceptable, also plate could be in 2 sections (half-lapped) if required. Also agreed to using pressure-treated Western Hemlock, hewn on exposed faces, painted on exterior and white-washed on interior (revised details to follow) ...

 

                                                                   B 313 63 - 70

                                                                    April 4, 1995

 

(a) BENOIST HOUSE (BLOCK 2) - PERIOD CAULKING

 

Appropriate door and window locations on Benoist House for testing Mix #1 and Mix #2 selected by H. Antle and S. Myers; see attached. L. Wadden to identify other possible locations on site, both painted and unpainted. E. Krause noted that the principle should be filling of cracks and checks for preservative reasons, as the French would have done, not cosmetic. Once filling cracks, however, the French may well have added colourants for aesthetic reasons.

 

                                                                   B 313 192 - 1

                                                                 August 30, 1995

 


(a) RECAP OF BEAUSÉJOUR RESIDENCE (BLOCK 3)

 

(i) Exterior Stair

 

Agreed long ties to be pressure- treated western hemlock;

 

- stair to be completely painted except for treads, as per existing;

 

                                                                   B 317 44 - 52

                                                                   April 04, 1996

 

(a) RECAP OF DELORT III, ÎLE DU QUAI (LOT "B")

 

L. Wadden advised work is almost complete

 

- siding needs linseed oil treatment ...

 

                                                                   B 317 60 - 64

                                                                   May 10, 1996

 

(03) Recap of Delort III, Ile du Quai (Lot "B")

 

L. Wadden suggested treads and upper landing of new exterior steps to Delort III be oiled, rather than painted (with red ochre) as per paint schedule, since paint will wear off. All other elements of step to receive red ochre treatment. Design Team agreed; L. Burchell to revise paint schedule indicating change to treads and upper landing, while all other elements to remain the same.

 

 

                                                                   B 317 65 - 73

                                                                   June 12, 1996

 

(02) RECAP OF DELORT III , ILE DU QUAI (LOT "B")

 

It was noted by L. Burchell that reference to "red ochre" in minutes of May 10 is indicated in Paint Manual as "wood colour".

 

 

                                                                   B 317 94 - 99

                                                                 August 16, 1996

 

ITEM (11)

 

Recap of baron house, île du qua ...

 


Board and Batten Shutters: Replacing one pair only. Remainder show fine cracks at end grain, top and bottom; agreed to flood cracks with linseed oil before painting

 

                                                             B 318 02 06 1977 CI

                                                                February 6, 1997

 

ITEM (01)

 

Recap of Carrerot residence (Lot d, Block 2)

 

S. Myers presented preliminary options for exterior render:

 

Option #1: Render on lathwork between posts ....

 

                        joint between render and framing would require careful detailing. Could provide concealed gasket behind render, and seal as well as possible at face by applying whitewash regularly over render and framing, but would still be a vulnerable area. Need for concealed modern gaskets points out unsuitability of this detail for this climate, and suggests that it is not the correct period detail.

 

B 380 02 10 2001 CI

January 10, 2001

 

ITEM (02)      

 

RECAP OF CARREROT HOUSE/MAGASIN (LOT "D", BLOCK 2)

 

Carrerot Magasin: L. Wadden advised framing materials not available in pine in time for construction, which must begin soon.  Even substitute materials such as pressure-treated hemlock not available for minimum of 10 - 12 weeks.  Proposed use of stockpiled pressure-treated material; these are 9" x 9" pressure-treated western hemlock, not incised.  We have only six timbers of 16-foot length, however; remainder are 12-foot or shorter.  Their use would require introduction of additional joints in visible exterior top and sill plates; plate timbers this short are not historically accurate.  Option of using longest timbers for visible plates and building up roof truss members from 2" material was preferred.  L. Wadden to continue attempts to locate enough material in suitable lengths for visible exterior framing.  Framing to be treated with primer and whitewashed to conceal pressure-treatment.


                                                                           (II)

 

                                                 APPENDIX ONE

 

 

To:                   Eric Krause/Est-East/PCH/CA@PCH

cc:                    Susann Myers/Est-East/PCH/CA@PCH

Subject:            Paint Colours, Exterior of Carrerot House and Magasin

 

ERIC. What do you think? Specifically what do we know about stain or was this another compromise il y a des annees.

 

---------------- Forwarded by Bill O'Shea/Est-East/PCH/CA on 02/02/2001 10:14 PM

 

02/02/2001

 

To:bruce.fry@ns.sympatico.ca, Tom Meagher/Est-East/PCH/CA@PCH, Bill O'Shea/Est-East/PCH/CA@PCH, Lionel Wadden/Est-East/PCH/CA@PCH

 

cc:Wendy Bryan/Est-East/PCH/CA@PCH

 

Subject: Paint Colours, Exterior of Carrerot House and Magasin

Paint colour selection is needed for the Carrerot property, to suit the new design of the building.

 

The colours approved by Structural Design Committee for the Carrerot House exterior in 1978 were:

- rendered areas: whitewash;

- shutters and doors: green (to be a darkish colour made from yellow ochre and blue);

- window sashes and frames: white lead;

- charpente frame: walnut stain. (The eaves and the window frames set in masonry have also been painted with the walnut stain, as has the charpente frame of the Magasin.)

 

With the charpente frame of the house now concealed by render, a new balance of colours is needed. I do not like the look of the present green on the Carrerot doors and shutters - it seems too bright to me for a period green, and would stand out even more strongly than at present on the new rendered walls. Having looked at the colour schemes on buildings on site in general, and the streetscape around the Carrerot property in particular, I would recommend the following for the Carrerot House and Magasin:

 

- rendered areas: whitewash;

- magasin: piquet fill and charpente frame: whitewash;

- shutters and doors: walnut stain (medium brown);

- eaves of the House and window frames set in masonry: walnut stain;

- window and door trim and frames: dull yellow ochre (shown as Gov. St. 504-306 on Harold's colour samples);


- window sash: white.

 

Painting is to begin immediately on the House. Please let me know by Monday, February 5th, if you have any objection to these colours. I have one of Harold's boards of sample colours in my office, if you would like to see them.

 

Regards,

Susann


 

                                                                          (II1)

 

                                                 APPENDIX TWO

 

                                                                         Paints

 

                                                              by Christian Pouyez,

                                                                   In Historians,

                                                   Preliminary Architectural Studies,

                                                                     Volume 03,

                                                        Unpublished Report HG 02

                                                      (Fortress of Louisbourg, 1972,

                                                     Report Number HG 02 03 02 E)

 

This preliminary report will study, as far as the present state of documentation will permit, three problems concerning painting: the frequency with which paint was used, both indoors and out, on public and private buildings; the types of paints used; and finally, the range of

 colours used at Louisbourg.

 

 (1) FREQUENCY OF USE OF PAINT

 

What information we have suggests that the interiors of buildings as well as the exteriors were painted. On the outside, wood which was exposed to the weather was painted. Hence when the Duhaget house was rented to Daniel Augier, the parties agreed

 

that they will paint the said house at common expense. That is, the said Sieur Duhaget will give the first coat this year on the outside of the house and the said Sieur Augier, the second coat next year [NOTE 1].

 

In 1739 Sabatier, the commis des fortifications, recommended painting all the exposed wood on the king's properties, including "doors, shutters, gates, guardhouses, sentry‑boxes" and even, the cannon themselves, to prevent rust [NOTE 2]. In 1740 Bourville and Bigot recommended that the Louisbourg batteries be painted "rough red" rather than tarred,

 

since experience has shown that wood lasts better when painted than when tarred, for the tar falls off in flakes [NOTE 3].

 

These various recommendations were followed, if we may judge by the many references to linseed oil, nut oil and colours in the inventories of the victuals storehouse [NOTE 4]. In fact it seems that after 1740 paint was used regularly as a covering for exposed wood. That is what is suggested by a letter Bigot sent to Maurepas, from which the following extract is taken:

 


the oil which I ordered for painting the gun‑ carriages on the batteries has almost entirely run out. It is annoying that they do not take precautions at Rochefort to avoid these accidents. The only way to preserve wood exposed to the air in this country is to give it regularly every year a coat of paint. Next year we will not be able to do so [NOTE 5].

 

Indoor paints, on the other hand, were more commonly used for decoration than for protection. In the only two cases we know, the paint, which was actually whitewash, was applied on a layer of mortar. For example, the second floor of the house of Sieur Pierre Aurieu, tavern‑keeper, was,

 

"bien listellé [Translatorts note: it is difficult to discover the precise meaning of "listellé", even in French. It evidently refers to some aspect of the finishing] and rough‑cast with lime and clayey earth. Whitewashed" [NOTE 6].

 

Similarly, for the house built by Dubenca for M. Beaubassin, it was planned that the wall around the kitchen would be

 

filled with squared pickets roughcast first with clayey earth, above that with mortar, and whitewashed.

 

It was planned that the second floor would be

 

also picketed like the ground floor, coated with clayey earth, rough‑cast with mortar and whitewashed [NOTE 7].

 

However one must not conclude from these few examples that the use of paint was the rule at Louisbourg. In fact there is surprisingly little information about painting, nor even frequent mention of it. Apart from documentation on public buildings, only four more or less explicit

references to painting have been found so far, though the documentation now filed covers more than a hundred houses. Does this scarcity of references arise from the nature of the sources? That is doubtful, for on the whole, inventories after deaths and construction specifications are precise, detailed documents. It is likely that if paint was widely used, it would receive much more frequent mention, whether direct or indirect. The situation was evidently different for the king's buildings, as has been noted above.

 

 (2) TYPES OF PAINT USES

 

Both water paints and oil paints were used at Louisbourg. In the case of water paints, a clear distinction must be made between public buildings and private houses. In the former, distemper paint was often used. Distemper paint is a water paint with a base of whiting mixed with

paste or another adhesive substance to make it hold to the walls. The inventories of the victuals storehouse for 1738 and 1739 include two articles on whiting: they show a stock weighing 217 pounds in 1738 and a stock of 25 pounds in 1739 [NOTE 8]. For private houses, the paint appears to have been whitewash, which is less costly and more simple to use. But it is hard to generalize, for the houses mentioned above, those of Sieur Pierre Aurieu and M. Beaubassin are the only two examples we know at present.


 

Oil paint was used chiefly for exteriors, but also for various pieces of military equipment ‑ the drums of the Compagnies Franches, for example and for iron fittings. There is no specific document which discusses the painting of ironwork, but lamp‑black [NOTE 9], a colour principally used for painting interior and exterior ironwork [NOTE 10], is mentioned

several times. One can surely infer from this that at least some of the ironwork was painted.

 

Oil paints were prepared nut oil or linseed oil, which was boiled with litharge to increase its drying qualities [NOTE 11]. Next white lead was added, producing the base of the paint. Curiously, we have found no documentary reference to turpentine, though it must have been

indispensable for thinning the paint. It seems unlikely that pure paint would always have been used: Turpentine had to be mixed into the first coat, so that the paint would soak into the wood.

 

 (3) COLOURS

 

The range of colours was fairly wide. A list of the colours mentioned in the documents used for this study will be found below. Most of the references are taken from the inventory of Charles‑Yves Duval, a joiner, and the inventories of the victuals storehouse. Total quantities of each type are given, preceded by the sign "+" when the quantities are not entirely known.

 

            (A) WATER COLOURS

 

            (1) Whiting: 257 pounds

(2) Lime: n.a.

 

(B) OIL PAINTS

 

(1) Blanc d'azur [NOTE: Literally "azure white"]: +487 pounds

            (2) Cendre bleue: [NOTE: Literally "blue ash"]: n/a

            (3) Yellow ochre: 20 pounds

            (4) Red ochre: +113 pounds

(5) Yellow and red ochre: 209 pounds

            (6) Red ochre (diluted with oil): 929 pounds

(7) Red graphite: 6 pounds

(8) Green: 6 pounds

            (9) Lamp‑black (powder): 4 barrels

            (10) Lamp‑black (diluted with oil): 11 pounds

 

If we might draw conclusions from these few indications, it would seem that yellow and red were the most frequently used colours, both for public and private buildings: the Duval inventory shows more red and yellow ochre than all other colours. The great quantities of white lead "blanc de ceruse" give no indication of colour, for white was only the colour of the base of the paint.

 


Let us close by hoping that before too long, we will be able to complete this study by an analysis of coloured plans and views of 18th century Louisbourg.

 

The appendices contain:

 

 (1) a glossary explaining, some technical terms used in this report

 (2) the inventory after the death of Charles‑Yves Duval.

 

 4 APPENDIX I: GLOSSARY

 

 (01) CENDRE BLEUE (bleu ash)

 

Colour obtained by precipitating with potassium the (blue ash) oxide contained in a solution of copper nitrate and crushing the remainder with lime (CHABAT, DICTIONNAIRE DES TERMES EMPLOYÉS DANS LA CONSTRUCTION, T. I. ARTICLE "CENDRE")

 

 (02) CÉRUSE (BLANC DE)(white lead)

 

Carbonate of lead obtained by exposing small pieces of lead to fumes of vinegar. It becomes a powder which is employed as a white coloured base for oil paints (DIDEROT ENCYCLOPÉDIE, VOL. II, ARTICLE "BLANC DE PLOMB", VOL. III ARTICLE "CERUSE" ‑ CHABAT DICTIONNAIRE T. I. ARTICLE "CERUSE"

 

 (03) HUILE GRASSE (rich or thick oil)

 

The oil which painters mix into their colours to make them dry. Huile grasse is made of nut oil or linseed oil boiled with litharge. The litharge sinks to the bottom: what floats on top is huile grasse.

 

 (04) LAIT DE CHAUX (whitewash)

 

Paint obtained by dissolving lime in a large amount of water. (CHABAT, DICTIONNAIRE T. I ARTICLE, CHAUX)

 

 (05) LAITANCE

 

 Synonym for lait de chaux, whitewash.

 

 (06) LITHARGE

 

Oxide of lead which dries the oils with which colours are mixed [NOTE 12].

 

(07) NOIR DE FUMÉE (lamp‑black)

 


One of the three kinds of blacking (vegetable black, bone black, and lamp‑black). A substance obtained by the burning of the residues of resins. Lamp‑black has the appearance of soot. It mixes perfectly with oil paints, and is most often used to paint indoor iron fittings. Lamp‑

 black is sold in wooden barrels. (CHABAT DICTIONNAIRE T. II ARTICLE NOIR

‑ DIDEROT ENCYCLOPEDIE, VOL. XI ARTICLE NOIR DE FUMEE)

 

(08) OCRE (ochre)

 

A clayey substance coloured yellow, red or brown by different iron oxides which it contains in varying qualities. (DIDEROT ENCYCLOPÉDIE, VOL. XI, ARTICLE OCHRES)

 

 (09) PLOMB (Mine de) (graphite)

 

Strictly speaking, mine de plomb is simply graphite, a black mineral used, according to Blondel, to paint fire‑backs. However, the document ‑ there is only one, unfortunately ‑ where mine de plomb is mentioned, specifies red mine de plomb. Hence one may wonder if it is not actually minium (red lead). This seems more likely. Minium is a red‑orange oxide of lead, used as a first coat to protect ironwork from rust. Minium is obtained by the calcination in air of massicot (a monoxide of lead which also provides, when heated red, litharge). (BLONDEL, COURS D'ARCHITECTURE T. 6, p. 444‑445 ‑ CHABAT DICTIONNAIRE T. II ARTICLE

 MINIUM).

 

                                                                   ENDNOTES

 

[NOTE 1:] Bail à loyer: Robert Duhaget à Daniel Augier. Louisbourg, 20 juillet 1753. A.N., Section Outre‑Mer, G3, carton 2041 suite, no. 41. [NOTE 2:] Lettre de Sabatier à Maurepas. Louisbourg, 12 novembre 1739. A.N.., Col., C11B, vol. 21, fol. 179v.

[NOTE 3:] Lettre de Bourville et Bigot à Maurepas. Louisbourg, 20 octobre 1740. A.N., Col., C11B, fol. 43v.

[NOTE 4:] Voir le memo rédigé par Blaine Adams le 30 mai 1969.

[NOTE 5:] Lettre de Bigot à Maurepas. Louisbourg, 21 novembre 1743. A.N., Col.,

C11B, vol. 25, fol. 150. [NOTE 6:] Devis d'une maison. Louisbourg, 26 juillet 1754. A.N., Section Outre‑Mer, G3, carton 2042, no. 69.

[NOTE 7:] Marché entre Mr Beaubassin et Dubenca. Louisbourg, 30 mai 1756. A.N.,

Section Outre‑Mer, G3, carton 2044, no. 53.

[NOTE 8:] Blaine Adams, Memo Sur la peinture, p. 4.

[NOTE 9:] (i) Succession de feu Charles‑Yves Duval, menuisier. Louisbourg, 19 mai 1733. A.N., Section Outre‑Mer, G2, vol. 182, f. 730. (ii) "Balance de la recette et consommation faites dans les magasins du Roy a l'Isle Royalle pendant l'année 1738." Louisbourg, 2 novembre 1739. A.N., Col., C11B, vol. 21, fol. 196. (iii) "Balance ... pendant l'année 1739." Louisbourg, 1 er janvier 1740. A.N., Col., C11B, vol. 21, fol. 246.

[NOTE 10:] J.F. Blondel, Cours d'architecture (Paris, V ve Desaint, 1777), Tome 6, p. 445. Chabat, Dictionnaire des termes employés dans la construction (Paris, Morel, 1875), Tome 2, Article "NOIR".

[NOTE:11] On trouve mention d'huile de lin et de litharge dans l'inventaire des effets de feu Charles‑Yves Duval (A.N., Section Outre‑Mer, G2 vol. 182, fol. 730); on a une mention d'huile


de noix dans un seul document: Compte avec Madame Demaret, Louisbourg, a.d. Archives de la Marine, C7, 184, Dossier Levasseur. L'huile d'oeillette était peut‑être utilisée également, mais nous n'en avons pas trouvé de mention. Pour les bâtiments du Roi, les peintures étaient presque toujours à base d'huile de lin (Balance de la recette ... pour 1724 à 1730, Louisbourg, 30 avril 1731. A.N., Col., C11B, vol. II, fol. 205v. Balance ... pendant l'année 1738. Louisbourg, 2 novembre 1739. A.N., Col., C11B, vol. 21, fol. 196. Pratiquement toutes les "Balances" mentionnent degrandes quantités d'huile de lin. Trés peu d'huile de noix).

[NOTE 12:] En 1756, le sieur Fizel reçut 36 livres pour vingt deux livres et demie de litharge qu'il a fourni pour mettre dans les "peintures qui ont été employées dans les maisons de sa majesté en ce port...." A.N., Col., C11B, vol. 36, fol. 212.


                                                                          (IV)

 

                                               APPENDIX THREE

 

05/02/2001

 

To:                   bruce.fry@ns.sympatico.ca, Tom Meagher/Est-East/PCH/CA@PCH, Bill O'Shea/Est-East/PCH/CA@PCH, Lionel Wadden/Est-East/PCH/CA@PCH

cc:                    Wendy Bryan/Est-East/PCH/CA@PCH, Eric Krause/Est-East/PCH/CA@PCH

Subject:            Correction to Carrerot Exterior Colours

 

A correction to the colours recommended for the Carrerot House exterior:

 

-  the colour for the eaves of the House should be dull Yellow Ochre, not Walnut stain.

 

Please note that the "Walnut stain" approved in the past by Structural Design Team for use on site is a solid-hide stain, which forms a surface layer on the wood.  Technically, it is a paint really, not a penetrating stain.  It is medium brown in colour.

 

Also note that the extent of painting to the Carrerot House and Magasin is to be substantially reduced, with the timber frame of the house rendered over and that of the Magasin whitewashed.  The only items now painted on the Magasin will be the door and shutters.

 

Susann

 


 

                                                                            (L)

 

                                                                  APPENDICES

 

                                                               APPENDIX ONE

 

 

                                          LOUISBOURG: PAINT TERMINOLOGY

 

                        THE BUILT HISTORY OF PORT TOULOUSE, ISLE ROYALE,

                                             ACTUAL AND PROPOSED, 17131758

 

                                                                            BY

                                                                 ERIC KRAUSE

 

 

                                                            FEBRUARY 28, 1998

 

                                                               VOLUME FOUR

 

                                        GLOSSARY OF ISLE ROYALE BUILDING

                        AND FORTIFICATION TERMINOLOGY AND TECHNIQUES

 

                                                 (01) BUILDING TERMINOLOGY

 

... FIREPLACES - MATERIALS AND DECORATION

 

Home-owners of all building types preferred the rubble-stone fireplace. Finishing their jambs, mantles, breasts and stacks with a simple mortar rendering (often whitewashed) also kept costs to a minimum. Less frequently did they choose a fireplace of New England or poorer quality local bricks. Some also used local sandstone, though they suffered from the same fate as locally produced bricks: rapid deterioration in a fire.

 

... WALL FINISHES - EXTERIOR PAINT

 

Exterior painting was always a possibility, but in reality a lack of sustained military or civilian commit­ment to the idea and a continued problem with supply meant that painting was not general practice. Notwithstanding, the military wanted to paint all its exposed wood, a deep red ‑ for reasons of protection rather than aes­thetics ‑ all doors, shutter, window frames, gates, railings, sentry boxes, gun carriages, even iron cannons, but this plea was not made until 1739. By then the problem with rot was critical. In conclusion: exterior painting was not generally practiced on Isle Royale. Even private building contracts, even those sufficiently detailed to provide precise details on the size of bevels for the weatherboards, did not in­clude any rider concerning exterior painting.


WALL FINISHES - EXTERIOR RENDERINGS

 

The common protection in the early years, the covering of an exterior surface like a wall or chimney, first with an earth‑based or a lime‑mortar‑based finish, followed perhaps by a lime-wash (whitewash), or perhaps even paint, took two forms: crépi or crépissage, the rough coat applied either as a preliminary or as a final covering; or enduit, a crépi more expensively refined through a screen, to produce a final, fine, uniform finish less apt to crack, and technically, though not always, trowelled over a crépi....

 

In Europe a lime-wash often followed an exterior crépi or enduit, although the degree to which this practice was followed on Isle Royale is unknown. The standard Isle Royale military recipe for lime-wash specified two coats of lime slaked that day, with the second, containing glue, to be applied only after the first had dried. Unfortunately, these specifications were meant for interior crépis and enduits only (and never for wood).

 

... WALL FINISHES - INTERIOR PAINT

 

Aesthetic reasons perhaps lay behind much of the desire to whitewash or paint interior walls. Yet it was a practice with few followers. Those that did bear the cost were lime washing a mortar finish in every case (never a wooden wall). Even fewer chose to use paint.

 

Painters could choose to use either an oil or a water‑based distemper paint, with a variety of pigments. Available mixing materials were water, linseed oil, nut oil, milk, glue, turpentine, lime, white lead, whiting, a variety of ochres, vermilion and other pigments. Required equipment included paint brushes and stone pestles for grinding the paint.

 

... WINDOWS - MAINTENANCE

 

... The degree to which window frames, indeed the exterior sur­face of any part of a building at all, was painted is a moot point, and is a question which comprises the larger issue of ex­terior finishes in general. An unescapable conclusion, however, is that few window frames were painted, owing to a supply problem.


 

                                                               APPENDIX TWO

 

                                        DOMESTIC BUILDING CONSTRUCTION  

                                           AT THE FORTRESS OF LOUISBOURG,

                                                                     1713 ‑ 1758

 

                                                                            By

 

                                                                    Eric Krause

 

                                                               1996 Draft Report

 

                                      (Fortress of Louisbourg Report Number H G 10)

 

 

                                                               CHAPTER FOUR

 

                                                    INTERIOR WALL FINISHES

 

... Aesthetic reasons perhaps lay behind much of the desire to whitewash or paint interior walls.

Yet it was a practice with few followers. Those that did bear the cost, like the owners of

private homes in Block 5A or 34C or like the military, were lime washing a mortar finish in

every case (never a wooden wall). Even fewer chose to use paint: the only known examples

being the Block 2 and 23 residence of two of the highest ranking officials in Louisbourg.

 

Importation tables, administrative expenditure accounts and estate inventories, particularly

that of Charles Ives Duval, a joiner and carpenter, suggest that painters could choose to use

either an oil or a water‑based distemper paint, with a variety of pigments. Available mixing

materials were water, linseed oil, nut oil, milk, glue, turpentine, lime, white lead, whiting, a

variety of ochres, vermilion and other pigments. Required equipment included paint brushes

and stone pestles for grinding the paint.

 

                                                                CHAPTER FIVE

 

                                                    EXTERIOR WALL FINISHES

 

... The common protection in the early years, the covering of an exterior surface like a wall or

chimney, first with an earth‑based or a lime‑mortar‑based finish, followed perhaps by a

limewash (whitewash), or perhaps even paint, took two forms: crépi or crépissage, the rough

coat applied either as a preliminary or as a final covering; or enduit, a crépi more

expensively refined through a screen, to produce a final, fine, uniform finish less apt to

crack, and technically, though not always, trowelled over a crépi ...

 


... In Europe a limewash often followed an exterior crépi or enduit, although the degree to which this practice was followed on Isle Royale is unknown. The standard military recipe for

limewash in Louisbourg specified two coats of lime slaked that day, with the second,

containing glue, to be applied only after the first had dried. Unfortunately, these

specifications were meant for interior crépis and enduits only (and never for wood).

Nevertheless, the description of a Block 15C house as "in a very bad state without any

whitewash" was perhaps an indication that exterior limewashes were somewhat popular ...

 

... Exterior painting was always a possibility in Louisbourg, but in reality a lack of sustained

military or civilian commitment to the idea and a continued problem with supply meant that

painting was not general practice. Usually in short supply ‑ 1742 was a possible exception ‑

the paint was to have come from France, but one year, 1743, the supply had all leaked away

on board ship. In fact, that year there was no paint at all in the colony.

 

For certain, the military wanted to paint all its exposed wood, a deep red ‑ for reasons of

protection rather than aesthetics ‑ all doors, shutter, [window] frames, gates, railings, sentry

boxes, gun carriages, even iron cannons, but it did not make this plea until 1739. By then the

problem with rot was critical. In fact, a series of 1736 Louisbourg contracts, for the

maintenance and repair of crown‑owned buildings failed to even mention paint (unlike a

similar 1733 contract for Quebec).

 

Only a few individual examples besides the 1739 plea mention exterior painting in

Louisbourg at all: two coats of red oil paint (the recipe: 40 livres of oil, 20 livres of red [ochre]

for the pigment) for the windows of the lighthouse and/or lighthouse keeper's house (1731 ‑

military building); Duhaget will see to it that the first coat is applied this year, and Augier will

apply the second coat in the following year (1753 ‑ private home).

 

In 1741 the engineer wanted the commissaire‑ordonnateur to approve a new contract with the

entrepreneur, that included payment for red paint. The clause, however, did not appear in the

1742 amended contract. In 1744 the authorities paid for the services of painters. The low

charges, however, suggest that it was for minimal work. The conclusion: exterior painting

was not generally practiced at Louisbourg. Even private building contracts, even those

sufficiently detailed to provide precise details on the size of bevels for the weatherboards,

did not include any rider concerning exterior painting.

 

                                                             ... CHAPTER NINE

 

                                   DOOR AND WINDOW OPENINGS ‑ WINDOWS

 

... The degree to which window frames, indeed the exterior surface of any part of a building at

all, was painted is a moot point, and is a question which comprises the larger issue of

exterior finishes in general. An inescapable conclusion, however, is that few window frames

were painted at Louisbourg, owing to a problem with supply ...

 

                                                   ... CHAPTER TWENTY‑THREE

 


                                                FIREPLACES ‑ CONSTRUCTION

 

Home‑owners of all building types preferred the rubblestone fireplace. Finishing their jambs,

mantles, breasts and stacks with a simple mortar rendering (often whitewashed) also kept

costs to a minimum ...

 


                                                             APPENDIX THREE

 

                                     SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LOUISBOURG

                          PAINT REPORTS AVAILABLE ON  http://fortress.uccb.ns.ca

 

Hoad, Linda, "Interior Finish," in Historians, Preliminary Architectural Studies, Volume 03, Unpublished Report HG 02 03 03 (Fortress of Louisbourg, 1972)

 

Krause, Eric, The Built History of Port Toulouse, Isle Royale, Actual and Proposed, 1713-1755, Volume Four, Glossary of Isle Royale Building and Fortification Terminology and Techniques, Unpublished Report 9816 (Krause House Info-Research Solutions for the Fortress of Louisbourg, February 28, 1998)

 

Krause, Eric, Domestic Building Construction at the Fortress of Louisbourg, 1713-1758, Unpublished Report H G 10 (Fortress of Louisbourg, 1996 Draft Report)

 

Krause, Eric, Exterior House‑Paint (Documentation), Unpublished Draft Report in Progress (Krause House Info‑Research Solutions)

 

Krause, Eric, Exterior House‑Paint (Narrative), Unpublished Draft Report in Progress (Krause House Info‑Research Solutions, 1977 - Present)

 

Pouyez, Christian "Paints," In Historians, Preliminary Architectural Studies, Volume 03, Unpublished Report HG 02 03 02 E (Fortress of Louisbourg, 1972, Report)

 

Storm, A, Eighteenth Century Paint Materials and the painters Craft as Practised in Louisbourg, Training Manual, Unpublished Report H G 05 (Fortress of Louisbourg, May 1982)

 

 

                                ##############################################

 

                           ADDITIONAL RESEARCH - PLACE WHERE REQUIRED

 

 

(A) NOTE: IS THERE A DIFFERENCE ‑ TERMS

 

(SEE MAISON RUSTIQUE)

 

(1) BLANCHIR CES MURS AVEC DU LAIT DE CHAUX

 

(2) BLANCHIR LES MURAILLES A L'HUILE OU EN DETREMPE

 

(3) APPLIQUER QUELQUES COUCHES D'EAU DE CHAUX ... DU BLANC DES CARMES

 


(THIS IS A LIMEWASH)

 

(4) BLANCHIR A COLLE, SOIT MURAILLES OU BOIS, MEME POUR DORE

 

SEE JOMBERT

 

(5) DONNER UNE COUCHE DE BLANC DÉTREMPÉ AVEC LA COLLE

 

SEE BELIDOR

 

(6) LAVÉE DEUX FOIS AVEC LA BROSSE D'UN LAIT DE CHAUX VIVE MELÉ DE PETIT BLEU

 

 

(B) BARRACKS [More Details to Add] [150]

 

(C) BLONDEL

 

(1) UN LAIT DE CHAUX

 

(2) LES OUVRAGES COMMUNS DE BLANC EN DETREMPE

 

(3) PEINTURE EN DÉTREMPE COMMUNE

 

(4) UNE PEINTURE EN DETREMPE EN BLANC DE ROI ORDINAIRE

 

(5) LAIT DE CHAUX

 

(6) BROYER A L'EAU AVEC DE LA COLLE DE PARCHENIN POUR LES PEINTURES EN DETREMPE

 

(D) BRISEAUX

 

(1) ON DÉTREMPE OU ÉTEINT UNE LIVRE DE CHAUX VIVE DANS UNE PINTE D'EAU CLAIRE = UN LAIT DE CHAUX

 

(E) BULLET

 

(1) LE BLANC EN DETREMPE

 


(2) ÉCHAUDER DE PLUSIEURS COUCHES

 

(3) COUCHES DE CHAUX ÉTEINTE & CLAIRE , CE QU'ON APPELLE ÉCHAUDER

 

(F) LOUISBOURG IMPORTS          

 

Do they contain any of the following besides ochres and linseed oil :

Spanish White for Whiting

Sizings

White Lead ‑ Cerise

 

                                          ####################################



 [1]Christopher Morris, The Illustrated Journeys of Celia Fiennes, 1685 ‑ c. 1712 (London, 1982), pp. 96‑97.

 

 [2]Christopher Morris, The Illustrated Journeys of Celia Fiennes, 1685 ‑ c. 1712 (London, 1982), pp. 96‑97.

 

 [3]Christopher Morris, The Illustrated Journeys of Celia Fiennes, 1685 ‑ c. 1712 (London, 1982), p. 137.

 [4]Isaac Ware, A Complete Body of Architecture (London, 1756), Volume X, pp. 743 ‑ 744.

[5]Malachy Postlethwayt, Universal Dictionary (London, 1757), mensuration.

 

 [6]The Builder's Price Book (London, 1783), pp. 1, 12.

 

 [7] J. F. Blondel, Cours D'Architecture (Paris, 1777), pp. 436 ‑ 442.

 

 [8]Bardet de Villeneuve, Traité de L'Architecture Civil (Haye, 1740), p. 148; Bullet, Architecture Pratique (Paris, 1780), p. 543.

 

[9]Belidor, La Science des Ingeniurs (Paris, 1729), p. 64; J. F. Blondel, Cours D'Architecture, Volume 6 (Paris, 1770), p. 442.

 

 [10]Louis Liger, La Nouvelle Maison Rustique (Paris, 1755), Volume 1, p. 38; Pierre Bullet, Architecture Pratique (Paris, 1780), pp. 394 ‑ 395; J. F. Monroy, Traité d,Architecture Pratique (Paris, 1789), p. ?????; M. Viollet‑Le‑Duc, Dictionnaire Raisonné de L'Architecture (Paris, 1967 (Reprint), p. 117 ‑ 118.

 

 [11]Belidor, La Science Des Ingenieurs Dans La Conduites Des Travaux De Fortification Et D'Architecture Civile (Paris, 1729), Livre VI, p. 66.

 

 [12]Belidor, La Science Des Ingenieurs Dans La Conduites Des Travaux De Fortification Et D'Architecture Civile (Paris, 1729), Book 4, p. 100.

 

 [13]A. C. Daviler, Dictionnaire D'Architecture, Volume 2, (A La Haye, 1730), p. 247.

 

 [14]C. F. Roland Le Virloys, Dictionnaire D'Architecture (Paris, 1770), Volume 2, p. 103 ‑ 104.

 

 [15]C. F. Roland Le Virloys, Dictionnaire D'Architecture (Paris, 1770), Volume 2, p. 104.

 

 [16]C. F. Roland Le Virloys, Dictionnaire D'Architecture (Paris, 1770), Volume 2, p. 94.

 

 [17]C. F. Roland Le Virloys, Dictionnaire D'Architecture (Paris, 1770), Volume 1, p. 200.

[18]Charles Henri Arnhold, translator, of the work: Praktische Denkmalpflége par Georg LILL, édité par le Service des Monuments Historiques de Bavière (Munich, 1941).

[19] R. Campbell, The London Tradesman (London, 1747), p. 103

 

[20]John Muller, A Treatise containing The Practical Part of Fortification (London, 1755), pp. 246  ‑ 247.

[21]Campbell, p. 103; Richard M. Candee, "Housepaints in Colonial America: Their Materials, Maunufacture and Application," Colour Engineering (1966????????), p. 26

[22] Campbell, pp. 103 ‑ 104.

[23] Ibid.

 

[24] Ian A. Melville, The Repair and Maintenance of Houses (London, ????), p. 351.

 

[25]The Builder's Price Book (London, 1783), pp. 134 ‑ 143.

[26]Peter Nicholson, The New Practical Builder and Workman's Companion (1823), p. ??????????????

[27]James Gallier, American Builder's General Price Book and Estimator (New York, 1833), p. 118.

[28]James Gallier, American Builder's General Price Book and Estimator (New York, 1833), p. 118.

[29]James Gallier, American Builder's General Price Book and Estimator (New York, 1833), p. 119.

 

[30]James Gallier, American Builder's General Price Book and Estimator (New York, 1833), p. 119.

 

[31]James Gallier, American Builder's General Price Book and Estimator (New York, 1833), p. 119.

 

[32]James Gallier, American Builder's General Price Book and Estimator (New York, 1833), p. 119.

 

[33]James Gallier, American Builder's General Price Book and Estimator (New York, 1833), p. 117.

 

[34]James Gallier, American Builder's General Price Book and Estimator (New York, 1833), p. 119.

 

[35]James Gallier, American Builder's General Price Book and Estimator (New York, 1833), pp. 120 ‑ 121.

 

[36]James Gallier, American Builder's General Price Book and Estimator (New York, 1833), pp. 117 ‑ 118.

 

[37]James Gallier, American Builder's General Price Book and Estimator (New York, 1833), p. 41.

 

[38]Bardet de Villeneuve, Traité de L'Architecture Civil (Haye, 1740), p. 148; Bullet, Architecture Pratique (Paris, 1691, 1780), pp. 391, 543; Liger, La Nouvelle Maison Rustique (Paris, 1755), p. 963.

 

[39] J. F. Blondel, Cours D'Architecture (Paris, 1777), pp. 436‑442.

 

[40] Theodore Zuk Penn, "Decorative and Protective Finishes, 1750 ‑ 1850," APT, 16: 1 (1984), pp. 25 ‑ 26.

 

[41] J. F. Blondel, Cours D'Architecture, 6 (Paris, 1770), pp. 436 ‑ 442, 448 ‑ 450.[Check this Footnote - May be Incorrect]]

 

[42]Malachy Postlethwayt, Universal Dictionary (London, 1757), mensuration.

 

[43]M. Felibien, Des Principes de L'Architecture (Paris, 1697), p. 373.

 

[44]M. Felibien, Des Principes de L'Architecture (Paris, 1697), p. 429.

 

[45]A. C. Daviler, Dictionnaire D'Architecture (A La Haye, 1730), Volume 2, pp. 26 ‑ 27.

 

[46]A. C. Daviler, Dictionnaire D'Architecture (A La Haye, 1730), Volume 2, p. 133.

 

[47]A. C. Daviler, Dictionnaire D'Architecture (A La Haye, 1730), p. 85.

 

[48]A. C. Daviler, Dictionnaire D'Architecture, Volume 2, (A La Haye, 1730), p. 166.

 

[49]C. F. Roland Le Virloys, Dictionnaire D'Architecture (Paris, 1770), Volume 2, p. 104.

 

[50]C. F. Roland Le Virloys, Dictionnaire D'Architecture (Paris, 1770), Volume 1, pp. 493 ‑ 494.

 

[51]C. F. Roland Le Virloys, Dictionnaire D'Architecture (Paris, 1770), Volume 1, p. 201.

 

[52]C. F. Roland Le Virloys, Dictionnaire D'Architecture (Paris, 1770), Volume 1, pp. 201 ‑ 202.

 

[53]C. F. Roland Le Virloys, Dictionnaire D'Architecture (Paris, 1770), Volume 1, p. 202.

 

[54]C. F. Roland Le Virloys, Dictionnaire D'Architecture (Paris, 1770), Volume 1, p. 211.

 

[55] Bullet, Architecture Pratique (Paris, 1780), p. 440.

 

[56] C. E. Briseux, L'Art de Batir Des Maisons de Campagne, volume 2, (Paris, 1743), pp. 174 ‑ 185.

 

[57] Richard M. Candee, "Housepaints in Colonial America: Their Materials, Manufacture and Application ‑ II‑ The application of Interior Paints," Color Engineering (November‑December, 1966,) p. 24.

 

[58] John Obed Curtis, "How to save that old ceiling," The Old‑House Journal 8:10 (October, 1980), p. 131; Bullet, L'Architecture Pratique (Paris, 1691), p. 284.

 

[59] The Builder's Dictionary (London, 1734), Distemper, Water Colours.

 

[60] G. Beard, Craftsmen and Interior Decoration, (??????????), p. 37.

 

[61]Peter Nicholson, The New Practical Builder and Workman's Companion ( 1823), p. ??????????????

 

[62]James Gallier, American Builder's General Price Book and Estimator (New York, 1833), pp. 117 ‑ 118.

 

[63]James Gallier, American Builder's General Price Book and Estimator (New York, 1833), p. 41.

 

[64] Candee, II, p. 24.

 

[65]M. Felibien, Des Principes de L'Architecture (Paris, 1697), p. 444.

 

[66]A. C. Daviler, Dictionnaire D'Architecture, Volume 2, (A La Haye, 1730), p. 85.

 

[67]A. C. Daviler, Dictionnaire D'Architecture, Volume 2, (A La Haye, 1730), p. 136.

 

[68] William Alan, The Police of Paris, 1718 ‑ 1789, Barton Rouge, 1979. p. 177

 

[69][Liger], La Nouvelle Maison Rustique ... (Paris, 1755), Volume 2, p. 56.

 

[70][Liger], La Nouvelle Maison Rustique ... (Paris, 1755), Book 2, pp. 665 ‑ 666.

 

[71][Liger], La Nouvelle Maison Rustique ... (Paris, 1755), Book 1, p. 18.

 

[72][Liger], La Nouvelle Maison Rustique (Paris, 1755), Volume 1, pp. 16.

 

[73]C. F. Roland Le Virloys, Dictionnaire D'Architecture (Paris, 1770), Volume 2, p. 135.

 

[74]John Muller, A Treatise containing The Practical Part of Fortification (London, 1755), p. 115.

 

[75]John Muller, A Treatise containing The Practical Part of Fortification (London, 1755), p. 245.

 

[76]The Builder's Price Book (London, 1783), p. 114.

 

[77]The Builder's Price Book (London, 1783), pp. 114 ‑ 115.

 

[78]The Builder's Price Book (London, 1783), pp. 115 ‑ 116

 

[79]The Builder's Price Book (London, 1783), pp. 118 ‑ 119.

 

[80]The Builder's Price Book (London, 1783), p. 123.

 

[81]The Builder's Price Book (London, 1783), pp. 125 ‑ 126.

 

[82]The Builder's Price Book (London, 1783), p. 141.

 

[83]The Builder's Price Book (London, 1783), p. 143.

 

[84] M. Duhamel du Monceau, Du Transport, De La Conservation Et De La Force Des Bois (Paris, 1767), p. 58.

 

[85]M. Felibien, Des Principes de L'Architecture (Paris, 1697), p. 472.

 

[86] Duhamel Du Monceau, p. 58.

 

[87]Duhamel Du Monceau, pp. 59 ‑ 64.

 

[88]William Salmon, Palladio Londinensis (London, 1734), pp. 56 ‑ 57.

 

[89]Charles James, An Universal Military Dictionary (London, 1816), p. 591.

[90] Daniel T. Atwood, Atwood's Country and Suburban Houses (New York, ????), p. 111.

 

[91] James K. Barr, and panelist comment, Commentary, in Sharon Timmons, Preservation and Conservation: Principles and Practices (Washington, 1976), pp. 304, 306 ‑ 307; A. Bettesworth, The Builder's Dictionary (????????????), White Lead, Oil

 

[92]Beard, p. 92.

 

[93] Geoffrey Beard, Craftsmen and Interior Decoration in England 1660 ‑ 1880 (New York, ????), p. 59

 

[94] Beard, p. 59

 

[95] Theodore Zuk Penn, "Decorative and Protective Finishes, 1750 ‑ 1850: Materials, Process, and Craft," APT, 16:1 (1984), p. 7.

 

 [96] James K. Barr, "Commentary," Preservation and Conservation: Principles and Practices (Washington, 1976), p. 304; Ibid., "Discussion," p. 306 ‑ 307.

 

[97]  J. F. Blondel, Cours D'Architecture (Paris, 1770), p. 441.

 

[98] A. Bettesworth, The Builder's Dictionary (?????????????), Colours

 

[99] A. Bettesworth, The Builder's Dictionary (London, 1734), Painting of Timber Work.

 

[100] "Discussion," Preservation and Conservation: Principles and Practices, (Washington, 1976), p. 307.

 

[101] Theodore Zuk Penn, "Decorative and Protective Finishes, 1750 ‑ 1850: Materials, Process, and Craft," APT, 16:1 (1984), pp. 24 ‑ 25; A. Bettesworth, The Builder's Dictionary (London, 1734, Washing of Colours.

 

[102] A. Bettesworth, The Builder's Dictionary (London, 1734), Blacks, Brown (Spanish), Grind, Lead, Painting, Size.

 

[103] Edward Cresy, ????????????????????, 1847, p. 910.

 

[104] A. Bettesworth, The Builder's Dictionary (London, 1734), Blacks.

 

[105] C. E. Briseux, L'Art de Batir Des Maisons De Campagne (Paris, 1743), p. 176; Bullet, Architecture Pratique (Paris, 1780), pp. 394, 440 ‑ 441; André‑Jacob Roubo, L'Art Du Menuisier (Colph, 1770), p. 265.

 

[106] R. Campbell, The London Tradesman (London, 1747), pp. 103, 105 ‑ 107.

 

[107] Charles Francis Dow, The Arts and Crafts in New England, 1704 ‑ 1775 (Topsfield, 1927), p. 237.

 

[108] A. Bettesworth, The Builder's Dictionary (London, 1734), Painting; Daniel T. Atwood, Atwood's Country and Suburban Houses (New York, ???????), p. 112.

 

[109] A. Bettesworth, The Builder's Dictionary (London, 1734), Oil; Daniel T. Atwood, Atwood's Country and Suburban Houses (New York, ??????), p. 110; Ian Bristow, "Painting," in Jack Bowyer, editor, Handbook of Building Crafts in Conservation (London, 1981), p. 360; Ellis A. Davidson, A practical Manual of House‑Painting (London, 1931), p. 24.

 

[110] Daniel T. Atwood, Atwood's Country and Suburban Houses (New York, ????????, pp. 107, 111 ‑ 113; Charles Francis Dow, The Arts and Crafts in New England, 1704 ‑ 1775 (Topsfield, 1927), p. 239; Harry Parker, Materials and Methods of Architectural Construction ( New York, 1961), p. 288.

 

[111] Ellis A. Davidson, A Practical Manual of House‑Painting (London, 1931), p. 139 ‑ 140, 144; Richard M. Candee, "Housepaints in Colonial America," Color Engineering, September‑October???, 1966), p. 29; Theodore Zuk Penn "Decorative and Protective Finishes, 1750 ‑ 1850, Materials, Process, and Craft," APT, 16: 1 (1984), p. 21.

 

[112]C. F. Roland Le Virloys, Dictionnaire D'Architecture (Paris, 1770), Volume 2, p. 174.

[113]M. Bullet, Architecture Pratique (Paris, 1780), p. 441.

 

[114]Ellis A. Davidson, A Practical Manual of House‑Painting (London, 1931), p. 7; A. J. Downing, The Architecture of Country Houses, Reprint, (New York, 1966), p. 40.

 

[115]A. Bettesworth, The Builder's Dictionary (London, 1734), Blacks, Oil, Varnish.

 

[116]Valuable Secrets Concerning Arts and Trades (London, 1775), p. 104.

 

[117] A Bettesworth, The Builder's Dictionary (London, 1734), Varnish; J. F. Blondel, Cours D'Architecture, Volume 6 (Paris, 1770), pp. 440 ‑ 441; Nina Fletcher, Little, American Decorative Wall Painting, 1700 ‑ 1850 (New York, 1952), p. 5.

 

[118] J. F. Blondel, Cours D'Architecture, Volume 6 (Paris, 1770), p. 436, 442

 

[119] Theodore Zuk Penn, "Decorative and Protective Finishes, 1750 ‑ 1850, Materials, Process, and Craft, APT, 16:1 (1984), pp. 3 ‑ 17; A. Bettesworth, The Builder's Dictionary (London, 1734), Painting of Timberwork, Verdegrease; Duhamel Du Monceau, Du Transport De La Conservation Et De La Force Des Bois (Paris, 1767), p. 58; Architecture Moderne (Paris, 1728), p. 95.

 

[120] William Salmon, Palladio Londinensis: Or, The London Art of Building (London, 1734), pp. 56 ‑ 58; Bullet, Architecture Pratique (Paris, 1780), p. 445.

 

[121]Ian Bristow, "Ready‑Mixed Paint in the Eighteenth Century," The Architectural Review (April, 1977), p. 246.

 

[122]A. Bettesworth, The Builder's Dictionary (London, 1734), Grind, Lead (White Lead), Oil, Painting of Timber Work, Spanish Brown; Harry Parker, Materials and Methods of Architectural Construction (London, 1961), pp. 288, 298.

 

[123] J. F. Belidor, Cours d'Architecture (Paris, 1770), pp. 440 ‑ 442.

 

[124] Peter Benes, "Sky Colors ....", p. 53

 

[125]Virginia, Colonial Williamsburg, Tucker‑Coleman Papers, August 30, 1798.

[126] Peter Benes, "Sky Colors and Scattered Clouds: The Decorative and Architectural Painting of New England Meeting Houses, 1738 ‑ 1834," The Dublin Seminar for New England Folklife: Annual Proceedings, 1979, (Boston, ?????), p. 53

 

[127] Peter Benes, "Sky Colors ...", p. 53

 

[128] Hezekiah Reynolds, Directions for House and Ship Painting (1812), p. 13.

 

[129] J. F. Blondel, Cours D'Architecture (Paris, 1770), p. 441‑442, C.E. Briseaux, L'Art de Batir (Paris, 1743), p. 176; A. C. Smeaton, The Builder's Pocket Manual (London, 1836), p. 91.

 

[130] J. F Blondel, Cours D'Architecture Volume 6 (Paris, 1770), pp. 436 ‑ 438; For the reason for applying warm, see: A. J. Downing, The Architecture of Country Houses, Reprint (New York, 1969), p. 399; [Liger], La Nouvelle Maison Rustique Book 4 (Paris, 1755), p.963; A. C. Smeaton, The Builder's Pocket Manual (London, 1836), p. 98; Theodore Zuk Penn, "Decorative   and Protective Finishes, 1750 ‑ 1850," APT, 16:1 (1984), p. 24.

 

[131] Thorpe, p. 263.

 

[132] Christopher Moore, "Commodity Imports of Louisbourg," MRS 317 (April, 1975), f. v..

 

[133] Christopher Moore, "Commodity Imports of Louisbourg," MRS 317, (April, 1975), pp. v ‑ viii.

 

[134] Frederick John Thorpe, The Politics of French Public Construction In The Islands of The Gulf of St. Lawrence, 1695 ‑ 1758 (Ottawa, 1973), pp. 135, 150, 141, 172 ‑ 173, 175, 179, 197, 199, 200 ‑ 202, 208, 212, 219 ‑ 220, 225 ‑ 226, 248 ‑ 249, 298 ‑ 301, 312 ‑ 313, 316, 329 ‑ 332.

 

[135] Thorpe, pp. 304 ‑ 305.

 

[136] Moore, p. viii. Together, these records form an impressive commodity data base.

 

[137] See also, Thorpe, p. 251.

[138] Fortress of Louisbourg, Structural Design Team Minutes, Painting, March 9, 1978, B 205, f. 632.

 

[139] Henry How, The Mineralogy of Nova Scotia (Halifax, 1869), p. 109.

 

 [140] Fortress of Louisbourg, Structural Design Team, Paint, Artifact/Archaeology Research Request, October 24, 1980, B 205, f. 703; Christopher Sergeant, Analysis of Painted Wooden Object from Louisbourg, August 5, 1980, B 205, f. 706.

 

[141] Archives de la Seminaire de Québec, Surlaville Papers, April 19, 1753, f. 51v.

 

[142] C11B, Volume 9, October 7, 1727, f. ?????2 references?; C11B, Volume 18, November 14, 1736, f. 103; C11B, Volume 24, circa 1742, f. 296v; C11B, Volume 28, December 31, 1749,

 ff. 331v, 340v.

 

[143]Louisbourg Report, A E 1, p. 83.

 

[144] Fortress of Louisbourg, Structural Design Team Minutes, Paint, Design Team Meeting to Examine color sample found and other pending items, January 23, 1981, B 205, f. 727; Andrée Crepeau to Structural Design Team, Structural Design Team Minutes, Paint, Painted Plaster Fragments, January 23, 1981, B 205, f. 730 ‑ 731, C. Sergeant, Analysis of Paint Layers On PlasterFrom Louisbourg, N.S. , February 18, 1981, Structural Design Team Minutes, Paint, B 205, f. 744.

 

     [145] Fortresss of Louisbourg Archives, B 201, April 25, 1967, p. 107.

 

     [146] Fortress of Louisbourg Archives, B 202, May 26, 1969, p. 235.

 

     [147] Fortress of Louisbourg Archives, B 202, May 26, 1969, p. 236.

 

     [148] Fortress of Louisbourg Archives, B 202, June 5, 1969, p. 244.

 

     [149] Fortress of Louisbourg Archives, B 204, January 9, 1973, pp. 427 ‑ 431 (a).

 

[150]Belidor, La Science des Ingenieurs (Paris, 1729), Volume 6, p. 61.