Return/retour

Heating and Cooking facilities in Private Dwellings in Louisbourg (1713 - 1758)

by H. Paul Thibault

In Historians,
Preliminary Architectural Studies,
Volume 03, Unpublished Report HG 02
(Fortress of Louisbourg, 1972,
Report Number H G 02 03 07)

INTRODUCTION

This report is a study of heating and cooking facilities in private dwellings in Louisbourg, strictly from the Domestic Architecture File. Maps and plans have been compiled, but not integrated into the analysis. The lack of information in certain areas obliged us to take into consideration a few secondary sources and also the historical evidence for king's buildings in Louisbourg.

From the documentary evidence, one is forced to conclude that heating or cooking facilities in Louisbourg were limited to chimneys, ovens, potagers and stoves. These facilities existed only in houses, bakeries and exterior ovens, except in the case of the King's and commissaire ordonnateur's storehouses.

(1)

CHIMNEYS

The chimney is the most common heating and cooking facility; in fact, at least one is found in each dwelling, whether it is a poor cabanne or an elaborate masonry house.

(I) TERMINOLOGY AND TYPOLOGY

It is extremely difficult to establish a typology for chimneys because of the loose terminology of the 18th century French in Louisbourg. The term "chemine" was applied to the whole structure from the foundation to the top of the capping, including fire places, stack and flues; this is how chimney will be used in this text and each feature will be designated by its proper [PAGE 2:] term. "Cheminée" is usually given without any further specification. Occasionally, it is qualified as:

(i) "cheminée simple"

(ii) "cheminée double"

(iii) "cheminée double en haut" [NOTE 1].

After 1750, two other terms appeared:

(iv) "cheminée à feu" [NOTE 2].

(v) "cheminée à deux feux" [NOTE 3].

It seems that the only distinction occasionally made concerned the number of fireplaces for each chimney, without any consideration in their position, either on the same floor or on different floors. Therefore, the only types that have been encountered to date are:

(A) "CHEMINÉE SIMPLE"

(1) chimney with one fireplace on the ground floor, often but not necessarily located on the gable wall of a house.

(B) "CHEMINÉE DOUBLE"

(1) chimney with two fireplaces which can be:

(i) both on the ground floor

(a) directly back to back or

(b) partly back to back [NOTE 4].

Usually, this type of chimney is used with a partition wall

(2) one on the ground floor and the other one on the first floor, probably the "cheminée double en haut."

With the exception of the Vallée House which had two chimneys with four fireplaces each, two on the ground floor and two on the first [PAGE 3:] floor [NOTE 5], evidence tends to prove that there were usually not more than two fireplaces on one chimney; none have been found with three.

With the following table, an attempt has been made to relate the type of chimney to the type of house. These figures are extremely weak; only clear and specific information on both house type and chimney have been considered, representing less than 10% of all the houses of Louisbourg. For a more complete picture, the size of the house, the number of stories and rooms and the location of the chimneys should be taken into consideration.

TABLE

TYPE OF CHIMNEY TO THE TYPE OF HOUSE

(01) PIQUETS HOUSES

(a) Number of Fireplaces: 1; Type of Fireplace: cheminée simple; TOTAL NUMBER OF EXAMPLES: 12

(b) Number of Fireplaces: 2; Type of Fireplaces: cheminée simple; TOTAL NUMBER OF EXAMPLES: 1

(c) Number of Fireplaces: 1; Type of Fireplace: cheminée double; TOTAL NUMBER OF EXAMPLES: 8

(d) Number of Fireplaces: 2; Type of Fireplaces: cheminées doubles; TOTAL NUMBER OF EXAMPLES: 1

(e) Number of Fireplaces: 2; Type of Fireplaces: 1 cheminée simple and 1 double; TOTAL NUMBER OF EXAMPLES: 0

(02) CHARPENTE HOUSES

(a) Number of Fireplaces: 1; Type of Fireplace: cheminée simple; TOTAL NUMBER OF EXAMPLES: 2

(b) Number of Fireplaces: 2; Type of Fireplaces: cheminée simple; TOTAL NUMBER OF EXAMPLES: 1

(c) Number of Fireplaces: 1; Type of Fireplace: cheminée double; TOTAL NUMBER OF EXAMPLES: 6

(d) Number of Fireplaces: 2; Type of Fireplaces: cheminées doubles; TOTAL NUMBER OF EXAMPLES: 2

(e) Number of Fireplaces: 2; Type of Fireplaces: 1 cheminée simple and 1 double; TOTAL NUMBER OF EXAMPLES: 0

(03) MASONRY HOUSES

(a) TOTAL NUMBER OF EXAMPLES OF ALL TYPES: 0

NOTE: "these figures do not include the Vallée House]

(04) UNKNOWN TYPE OF HOUSES

(a) Number of Fireplaces: 1; Type of Fireplace: cheminée simple; TOTAL NUMBER OF EXAMPLES: 7

(b) Number of Fireplaces: 2; Type of Fireplaces: cheminée simple; TOTAL NUMBER OF EXAMPLES: 1

(c) Number of Fireplaces: 1; Type of Fireplace: cheminées doubles; TOTAL NUMBER OF EXAMPLES: 5

(d) Number of Fireplaces: 2; Type of Fireplaces: cheminées doubles; TOTAL NUMBER OF EXAMPLES: 0

(e) Number of Fireplaces: 2; Type of Fireplaces: 1 cheminée simple and 1 double; TOTAL NUMBER OF EXAMPLES: 2

(05) TOTAL NUMBER OF HOUSES

(a) 48 of which: 1 cheminée simple = 21

(b) 2 cheminées doubles = 3

(c) 1 cheminée double = 19

(d) 2 cheminées doubles = 3

(e) 1 cheminée simple and 1 cheminée double = 2.

From the above figures, one is forced to conclude that a single cheminée simple or cheminée double were the most common found in Louisbourg homes. The single cheminée simple predominated slightly in piquets houses, but one cheminée double was preferred in charpente houses. Two cheminées [PAGE 4:] simples, two cheminées doubles, one cheminée simple with one double were exceptions for single dwellings. Since there has been very little indexing done on masonry houses, it is impossible to deal with their heating facilities. Chimneys shared by two houses were not rare, though such an arrangement often led to legal conflicts [NOTE 6].

(II) BUILDING MATERIALS

Evidence for the type of building materials used for chimneys in private dwellings is extremely scanty. Three kinds of material have been found: rubble masonry, brick masonry, and clay and straw ("torchis de terre") [NOTE 7]. Rubble masonry comprised field stone with clay or lime-and-sand mortar, the clay and straw being used only for the top of a chimney stack. Rubble and brick were also re-utilized for the same purpose whenever a chimney had to be demolished [NOTE 8].

The following figures reveal the relationship between building material for chimneys and house types

TABLE

MATERIALS FOR CHIMNEYS AND HOUSE TYPES

(01) PIQUETS HOUSES

(A) Brick Masonry = 1

(B) Brick and Rubble Masonry = 0

(C) Rubble Masonry with mortar = 4

(D) Rubble Masonry with CLAY = 2

(E) Rubble masonry with UNKNOWN = 3

(F) Rubble Masonry and CLAY and STRAW = 1

(02) CHARPENTE HOUSES

(A) Brick Masonry = 0

(B) Brick and Rubble Masonry = 01

(C) Rubble Masonry with MORTAR = 0

(D) Rubble masonry with CLAY = 1

(E) Rubble Masonry with UNKNOWN = 0

(F) Rubble masonry and CLAY and STRAW = 0

(03) MASONRY HOUSES

(A) Brick Masonry = n/a

(B) Brick and rubble masonry = n/a

(C) Rubble masonry with MORTAR = n/a

(D) Rubble masonry with CLAY = n/a

(E) Rubble masonry with UNKNOWN = n/a

(F) Rubble Masonry and CLAY and STRAW = n/a

(04) UNKNOWN TYPE OF HOUSES

(A) Brick Masonry = 2

(B) Brick and rubble masonry = 0

(C) Rubble masonry with MORTAR = 0

(D) Rubble masonry with CLAY = 0

(E) Rubble masonry with UNKNOWN = 2

(F) Rubble masonry and CLAY and STRAW = 0

(05) TOTAL NUMBER OF HOUSES = 18

(A) Brick masonry = 4

(B) Brick and rubble masonry = 1

(C) Rubble masonry with MORTAR = 4

(D) Rubble Masonry with CLAY = 3

(E) Rubble Masonry with UNKNOWN = 5

(F) Rubble Masonry and CLAY and STRAW = 1

[PAGE 5:]

Again, these statistics represent less than 5% of all houses at Louisbourg. The only acceptable conclusion at this point is that all kinds of building material were used for chimneys in piquets houses, and that there is not enough information concerning the other types of buildings. One can also presume that rubble masonry was more common than brick masonry which appeared more often after 1749. This might have been the result of the repairs made by the English during the occupation period. It is impossible to determine what building materials predominated in different types of chimneys; the only definite reference is to one cheminée double made of rubble and clay masonry [NOTE 9]. It is interesting to note that on Isle Saint-Jean, some problems were encountered with the masonry because the field stones were too soft [NOTE 10].

(III) CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

Since details regarding chimneys are quite scarce, this section should be regarded as a group of examples rather than as a comprehensive review.

Overall dimensions are given for very few chimneys. The sale of a charpente house included:

the chimney which is built on the same width and depth of the said six pieds and a half of land and depth [of two and a half pieds]

avec la cheminée qui se trouve batty [...] sur la me[me] largeur & proffondeur desd six pieds et demy de terrain et proffondeur cy dessus [de deux pieds et demy] [NOTE 11].

The Vallée House (Block 34, lot C) is the only other private building that provides further measurements for the chimneys. This mansarde house was built of rubble masonry in 1732, was 40 pieds by 34 pieds, [PAGE 6:] and had:

four rooms on the ground floor and four other rooms on the first floor which eight apartments have each a chimney, plus four other small attic rooms [...] without chimney [NOTE 12]

(1) Terres ... Excavation de la fondation de la maison ... masses des cheminées [compris] ...

(2) Maconnerie à chaux, et à sable ...

(a) Longueur du pourtour compris le mur de refend et masses des cheminées ... 33 - 2 - 0 ... Epaisseur 0 - 3 - 0 ... hauteur 0 - 2 - 6 ...

(b) Partie audessus au Retz de chaussez ... longueur du pourtour avec le mur de refend, et masses des cheminées ... 32 - 2 - 0 ... Epaisseur 0 - 2 - 0 ... hauteur 1 - 2 - 8 ...

(c) Parties, ou Souches des cheminées de puis le 1e Etage jusgu'au bout ou finitions du mur de refend hauteur d'une cy 2 - 2 - 8 ... largeur 0 - 4 - 6 ... Epaisseur ...1 - 0 - 0 ...

(d) Pour l'autre [idem] Souches des cheminées depuis le dessus du mur de refend jusgu'au chapeau hauteur cy ensemble 2 - 2 - 6 ... Epaisseur 1 - 2 - 0 ... largeur 0 - 4 - 6 ...

(3) Briques estimez dans l'emplois de la Maconnerie cy 3000 millier [sic] [NOTE 13].

[TRANSLATION]

(1) Earths ... Excavation of the foundation of the house ... chimneys [included] ...

(2) Lime and sand masonry

(a) Length of the circumference including the partition wall and the chimneys 33 - 2 - 0 ... Thickness 0 - 3 - 0 ... Height 0 - 2 - 6 ...

(b) Part above at the ground floor Length of the circumference with the partition wall and chimneys 32 - 2 - 0 ... thickness 0 - 2 - 0 height ... 1 - 2 -8 ...

(c) Parts, or stacks of the chimneys from the lst floor to the end or finish ofthe partition wall height of one 2 - 2 - 8 ... width 0 - 4 - 6 ... thickness 1 - 0 - 0 ...

(d) for the other [ditto] Stacks of the chimneys from the top of the partition wall to the cap height together 2 - 2 - 6 ... thickness 1 - 2 - 0 width 0 - 4- 6 ...

(3) Bricks estimated used in the masonry 3000 thousand [sic]" [PAGE 7:]

The following are the dimensions of the chimney of the Magasin des vivres:

(1) Brick masonry at 175 livres per cubic toise

(a) Chimney in the office

(i) Jambs and Mantle L[enght] T[ogether] 2 - 0 - 8 ... R [educed] W[idth] 0 - 2 - 4 ... Th [ickness] 0 - 0 - 7 - 3 ...

(ii) lst part above R[educed] h[eight]1 - 0 - 0 ... L[ength] or width] 0 - 4 - 0 ... Th[ickness] 0 - 2 - 0 ...

(iii) 2nd part above R[educed] ... h[eight] 2- 5 - 6 ... L[ength or width] 0 - 3- 2 ... Th[ickness] 0 - 1 - 6 ...

(iv) The fireplace ... L[ength] 1 - 0 - 0 ... W[idth] 0 - 4 - 0 Th[ickness] 0 - 0 - 4 ...

(2) ("Maconnerie en brique Du prix de 175" la toise Cube

(a) Cheminée du bureau

(i) Jambage et Manteau L[ongeur] E[nsemble] 2 - 0 - 8 ... L[argueur] R[éduite] 0 - 2 - 4 ... Ep[aisseur] 0 - 0 - 7 - 3 ...

(ii) lere partie au dessus h[auteur] R[éduite] 1 - 0 - 0 ... L[ongeur ou largueur] 0 - 4 - 0 ... Epaisseur 0 - 2 - 0

(iii) 2. Partie au dessus h[auteur] R[éduite] 2 - 5 - 6 L[ongeur ou largueur] 0 - 3 - 2 ... Epaisseur 0 - 1 -6

(iv) Le foyer ... L[ongeur] 1 - 0 - 0 ... L[argeur] 0 - 4 - 0 ... Ep[aisseur] 0 - 0 - 4" [NOTE 14].

[PAGE 8:]

According to Verrier, in 1727, the hoods ("hotte") of the chimneys in the barracks of the King's Bastion were too narrow for the fireplaces, which had to be larger than usual to allow more soldiers to have access to the fire [NOTE 15]. Most chimneys were smoking and they had to be re-established in 1731 [NOTE 16].

(A) FOUNDATION

Chimney foundations are mentioned only twice. In the first case, the chimney of a piquets house was to be in clay masonry from the foundation to above the attic floor [NOTE 17]. Another document also specified a clay masonry foundation, 2 pieds deep for a brick and rubble masonry chimney in a charpente house [NOTE 18]. With so little evidence, it is possible to say only that clay masonry was one type of chimney foundation used in Louisbourg homes.

(B) FIREPLACE

Though few details about fireplaces are available, sources reveal that the average inside width was from 4 to 5 pieds and that the larger ones were usually built for kitchens.

In 1758, somebody was ordered to "set back the tiles that have been taken off the floor near a chimney" ( "à remettre les carreaux de terre qui ont eté Enlever de dessus le plancher près d'une cheminée") in the widow Castaing's house [NOTE 19].

In most cases, the fireback did not differ from the rest of the masonry, and there were no further additions to protect it; for fireplaces on a common wall, the back of the first one built was used as fireback for the second one [NOTE 20]. In one instance, the first chimney [PAGE 9:] was built in rubble masonry and was used as fireback for a brick chimney built later on [NOTE 21].

The chimneys in the barracks of the King's Bastion were different. In 1731, Verrier wrote to Maurepas that:

... les contrecoeurs des cheminées des casernes n'ont esté faits gu'avec des simples briques de quatre pouces de large et que 1'épaisseur de ses contrecoeurs sont trop minses pour resister au feu, lesquels il faut reparer tous les ans jen ai fait retablir en pierre de taille de grais qui ce trouve dans l'Isle, mais l'expérience ma fais voir que cette pierre ne peut résister au feu et gu'elle s'eclatte, il est donc nécessaire de mettre des plaques de fer devant les contrecoeurs de briques pour eviter les reparations annuels ... d'ordonner qu'il soit fait dans les fabriques de fer trente plaques de deux pieds edemy de largeur sur deux pieds de hauteur toutes unies en y donnant 1'épaisseur convenable pour resister au feu [NOTE 22].

[TRANSLATION]

... The firebacks of the chimneys of the barracks have been made only with single bricks of four pouces wide and the thickness of those firebacks are too thin to resist fire, which have to be repaired every year. I had some re-established in cut stone sandstone which are found in the Island, but the experience showed me that this stone can't resist fire and it breaks to pieces, it is therefore necessary to put iron plates in front of the brick firebacks to avoid annual repairs ... to order that thirty plates be made in the iron shops two pieds and a half by two pieds high all plain with a thickness suitable for resisting fire ...

The bricks mentioned were early bricks of bad quality made in Isle Royale [NOTE 23].

The plates were fabricated in the "Augoumois" forges [NOTE 24] and sent in 1733 [NOTE 25].

[PAGE 10:]

In private dwellings, references to iron plates for firebacks are extremely rare. They are mentioned only in two fireplaces in the Guyon masonry house (Block 2, lot k) in 1756 [NOTE 26].

Two different features were used to hold the hood: one was the usual iron bars [NOTE 27]; the fireplace in the office of the Magasin des Vivres had two iron bars weighing 47 livres together [NOTE 28]. The other feature was a form: one mentioned is an ("ceintres de fer pour supporter les Vouste des manteaux") iron form to support the arches of the mantels and seems to have been permanent [NOTE 29]. Others included in the "frame" (Charpente) section of the toisé for the Vallé house, their dimensions being:

Length together (for four): 2 - 4 - 0 ...

Width 0 - 4 - 6 ...

les 4 ceintres des cheminées D longueurs Ensembles 2 - 4 - 0

largeur                                                                            0 - 4 - 6 ...

These forms could have been temporary because the toisé specified also "8 iron bars" [NOTE 30]. At this point, it is impossible to say if iron bars and forms could have been used together; however, iron bars were used without forms.

In some cases, the mantel was built with a shelf ("tablette") suitable for faïence decorations [NOTE 31]; the Vallée house had 4 pouces by 4 pouces wooden mantels with shelves [NOTE 32].

Occasionally, the jambs were in marble or in wood. In 1719, the engineer de Verville complained about the waste of money spent for "two jambs made of marble from Quebec one at the ordonnateur's and the other one in the vicinity" [NOTE 33]. This, however, may have been a very exceptional situation. Wooden jambs on the other hand seem to have been [PAGE 11:] more frequent: the 1753 devis specified in article 20 that the chimney jambs were to be of oak or birch boards reduced to 1 1/4 pouces thick. The Vallée house toisé mentioned one chimney jamb in wood, and, in the additional work done after the toise, two others that cost 12 livres [NOTE 35]. Although these jambs, like the cut stones in the barracks, would have been more decorative than structural, some of them, especially in wood, could have been functional.

(C) STACKS

The stack was built like the rest of the chimney, but there are a few examples of different materials. One chimney already mentioned was built of rubble and clay masonry, while above the attic floor, it was made of clay and straw ("torchis de terre") [NOTE 36].

In 1727, Saint- Ovide wrote to Maurepas that the chimney stacks of the barracks of the King's Bastion which had been made of "bricks of the country are completely deteriorated and will all have to be redone in a year or two" [NOTE 37]. Nine years later, Verrier wrote the same about the chimney stacks of the Island Battery: "experience has been convincing; being obliged to replace the chimney stacks which were made of flat stones that couldn't resist because their thickness was not sufficient, they have been re-established by cut stone from the demolition of the embrasures which have been well cramped" [NOTE 38].

The location of the stack was also important. In 1739, de Forant made the comment to Verrier that all the chimney stacks of the barracks of the King's Bastion had been built in the middle of the slope of the roof; Verrier replied that if he had had to build them, "he would place [PAGE 12:] all the chimney stacks against a wall in the middle of the building which would support the ridge lengthwise and where all the chimney stacks would stick out" and therefore would avoid having the rain dripping along the chimney which was the main problem with the existing chimneys [NOTE 39].

There were two ways to seal the roof at the opening for the chimney stack: lead flashing and/or mortar parging. In 1727, Verrier mentioned that the parging ("rivet") was of plaster [NOTE 40], but the previous document described it as being made of cement with lead flashing. Unfortunately, there is only one mortar parging mentioned for a private dwelling [NOTE 41].

From time to time, there are references to the height of the stacks above the roofs. On 17 June, 1726, Paris was ordered to finish a chimney in a house (Block 33, lot G) and to raise it two pieds above the ridge [NOTE 42]. In the thirties, the chimney stack of the Lucas house (Block 19, lot H) was not high enough above the roof, and because of the bark and sod roofing ("vieux mauvais plant de bois et tourbe") was a fire hazard [NOTE 43]. On 19 January, 1736, François Lucas agreed to build, on the North side of Louisbourg harbour, a piquets cabanne with a roofing of double thickness boards and a cheminée double, in rubble and clay masonry, "which will stick up three pieds and a half above the ridge" [NOTE 44]. On 9 May of the same year, Le Normant agreed with the widow Rodrigue to "raise to a convenient height the chimney of the house of the said widow Rodrigue to protect it, if feasible, from the smoke that the elevation of the King's house might cause" [NOTE 45]. On 10 November, Verrier wrote to Maurepas about the barracks of Port Toulouze that "... two chimneys smoke; but this inconvenience is caused by the proximity of the mountain. If a mason had been available, my son thought that [PAGE 13:] by raising the stack of those chimneys three pieds", the problem could have been solved [NOTE 46]. This information allows us to presume that chimney stacks could have been built three pieds above the ridge or less, depending on the proximity of a high object (a hill or a house), to allow a good draft, and depending also on the type of roofing, to avoid fire hazard.

Unfortunately, there is only one mention of capping for private dwellings: the toisé of the Vallée house included wooden capping ("chapeaux") in the "frame" section [NOTE 47].

(D) FINISH

The finish of the chimneys is more clearly described though there are few statistics extant. The following types of finish were found

TABLE

TYPES OF FINISH

(01) Type of finish: NONE; Number of Chimneys = 1; TOTAL = 1

(02) Type of Finish: CREPIS

(i) Crépis or crépissage: Number of chimneys = 5

(ii) Lime crépis: Number of chimneys = 1

(iii) Lime and sand crépis: Number of chimneys = 1; Total = 7

(03) Type of Finish: PLASTER: Number of chimneys = 2; Total = 2

Though it seems that most chimneys were finished with ordinary lime and sand crépis, some were plastered while others were left unfinished. In certain cases, only the stack or part of it was presumably unfinished above the attic floor [NOTE 48]. Prices indicate that plastering may have involved finer work than just coating; for example, 45 livres and [PAGE 14:] 50 livres for two chimneys in the Desmarest house [NOTE 49], and 10 livres per toise in the engineer's house [NOTE 50].

Cornices are also mentioned on several chimneys: one in the engineer's house, close to the ceiling or upper floor, [NOTE 51], two wooden ones stolen from the Le Normant house on the North shore of the harbour "on which were still the nails that held them fixed to the fireplace or elsewhere" [NOTE 52], and another on which there were eleven faïence cups [NOTE 53].

(IV) OTHER INTERESTING FACTS

Research on chimneys, heating and cooking facilities has revealed further points of interest which have been grouped within this section.

An important consideration in chimney types is the fuel used in Louisbourg. Nine inventories listed fire wood in backyards varying from 1 to 10 cords [NOTE 54] with an average of 4 1/2 cords, and one of the inventories specified wood "of different kinds" [NOTE 55]. In most cases, the number of cords on hand is higher from October to February than during the other months of the year

TABLE

NUMBER OF CORDS OF FIRE WOOD

(01) January - Number of Cords = n/a

(02) February - Number of cords = 4 - 2

(03) March - Number of cords = 1

(04) April - Number of cords = 1

(05) May - Number of cords = n/a

(06) June - Number of cords = 5

(07) July - Number of cords = n/a

(08) August - Number of cords = n/a

(09) September - Number of cords = n/a

(10) October - Number of cords = 4

(11) November - Number of cords = 10 - 6

(12) December - Number of cords = 10 - 1 1/2

[PAGE 15:]

There is no sign of coal in any private dwelling; only in 1749 did Desherbiers mention that town inhabitants had bought coal for their houses [NOTE 56]. It appears that fireplaces built to burn coal could not be used to burn wood; coal burning fireplaces were built by the New Englanders in the 1745-1748 period, mainly for public buildings, but rarely for private dwellings. In fact, there is only one mention of a "small chimney in brick of English construction" in 1757 [NOTE 57]. Wood was the only fuel used for all heating and cooking facilities, at least before 1745; after 1749, coal was very rarely used. Because of the type of fuel employed, sweeping of chimneys had to be done more frequently than today. On one occasion, it was specified that chimneys would normally have to be swept once a month [NOTE 58].

Chimneys with foundations, fireplaces and stacks were found both in humble and fine homes. Such chimneys were built even for the tents lodging workers for the fortifications [NOTE 59]. But this does not signify that other types of chimneys did not exist. When people moved to Saint-Pierre et Miquelon in 1763, they were so poor that most of their shacks ("cases") "did not have any rubble or brick chimneys; boards only were used as flues and formed the stacks of the chimneys" [NOTE 60]. One reason to believe that this older type of chimney could have existed in Isle Royale, is that in 1733, somebody is said to have escaped his captors by passing "through the roof of the cabanne which is opened where the chimney is"; but this could also have been the opening for the stack of an "old chimney" in ruins [NOTE 61].

[PAGE 16:]

(2)

OVENS AND POTAGERS

While further investigation is necessary on ovens and potagers, as many aspects as possible have been considered from available documentation.

(I) TERMINOLOGY

Three terms, very close in their meaning and writing, are found in the documents:

(1) four also written fourd.

(2) fourneau, also written fournau; and

(3) fournil, also written fourni, fournie and fourny.

The first one concerns the oven itself, no matter where it is, inside, outside, or in a bakery. Fourneau is always associated with potagers and seems to be part of it.

According to Blondel, the fournil is "in a large house, the place near the kitchen where the ovens are, for baking the bread, the pastry, etc. [NOTE 62].

More than a hundred years later, Chabat applied the same term to a "room of a bakery provided with a chimney in which the oven opens" [NOTE 63]. Robert-Lionel Séguin says that according to Furetière who published in 1701, "the fournil designates the place where the oven is built within the house", but he himself disagrees:

... in New France the fournil is more a kind of lean-to against the family dwelling. Other than for baking the bread, it was also used for other domestic tasks ... the fournil will be used later on as summer kitchen, then at the end, as winter kitchen. In the 19th century, this construction will be called bas- côté [NOTE 64].

Modern dictionaries don't agree either. Quillet and Larousse respectively say:

Room where the opening of the oven is and where dough is kneaded ...

Part of a rural habitation with an oven and where the laundry is done [NOTE 65].

Place where the oven is and where the dough is kneaded [NOTE 66].

[PAGE 17:]

The documentation of Isle Royale in the 18th century supports the last definition for fournil. It seems that the locals meant a place where an oven was, located either inside or outside a house. Although most fournils were outside, one existed within the habitation of the Brothers of Charity at the mouth of the Mira River [NOTE 67]. It is possible that dough was kneaded in the same place, because flour was found there from time to time [NOTE 68].

Most of the documents on heating and cooking facilities in private dwellings in Louisbourg do not mention any fournil, oven or potager; therefore, those features should be considered unusual. The following table gives an idea of the relationship between ovens, potagers and the type of private houses in Louisbourg

TABLE

OVEN TYPES

(01) PIQUETS HOUSES

(A) Potager = 0

(B) Potager and Oven = 0

(C) Indside Oven = 2

(D) Outside Oven = 3

(E) Bakery = 0

(02) CHARPENTE HOUSES

(A) Potager = 0

(B) Potager and oven = 0

(C) Inside oven = 0

(D) Outside oven = 2

(E) Bakery = 1

(03) MASONRY HOUSES

(A) Potager = 1

(B) Potager and oven = 1

(C) Inside oven = 0

(D) Outside oven = 1

(E) Bakery = 0

(04) UNKNOWN HOUSES

(A) Potager = 1

(B) Potager and oven = 1

(C) Inside oven = 3

(D) Outside oven = 1

(E) Bakery = 2

(05) TOTAL NUMBER OF HOUSES = 19

(A) Potager = 2

(B) Potager and oven = 2

(C) Inside oven = 5

(D) Outside oven = 7

(E) Bakery = 3

It appears from this table that inside and outside ovens existed for all except charpente house. Potagers or both inside ovens and potagers together may have existed only in masonry houses.

(II) OVENS

It seems that the location of the property influences the choice of ovens. The following table indicates that inside ovens were preferred [PAGE 18:] in the town of Louisbourg while outside ovens were in the majority outside of town. Moreover, it appears that there were more bakeries outside than inside Louisbourg.

TABLE

LOCATION OF OVENS

(01) LOCATION: In LOUISBOURG

(A) Inside oven = 5

(B) Outside oven = 3

(C) Bakery = 1

(D) Total = 9

(02) LOCATION: OUTSIDE of LOUISDBOURG

(A) Inside oven = 2

(B) Outside oven = 4

(C) Bakery = 2

(D) Total = 8

(03) TOTAL

(A) Inside oven = 7

(B) Outside oven = 7

(C) Bakery = 3

(E) Total = 17

The only use mentioned for ovens was the baking of bread and biscuits. The fuel seems to have been wood [NOTE 69]. It is not known if there were any differences between the structure or building material of inside and outside ovens.

(i) INSIDE OVENS

Inside ovens are always located on the ground floor and are closely related to the chimney; six of the seven noted above are on the ground floor while the seventh cannot be located [NOTE 70]; one is listed twice immediately after the chimney ("une cheminée, un four") [NOTE 71] two are mentioned as "a rubble chimney with an oven ("cheminée de Pierre avec un four") [NOTE 72], or as "an oven in one of the said chimneys" ("un four dans l'une desdts cheminées) [NOTE 73] and a fourth one is specifically described as a cheminée double "having an oven in one of the sides of the said chimney" ("cheminée double ayant un four dans l'une des cotes de la ditte cheminée") [NOTE 74]. According to secondary sources that will have to be more carefully analysed, ovens were not only on the ground floor, [PAGE 19:] but were also in one of the sides of the chimney, with the door opening into the fireplace.

No structural details or information on building materials is available for inside ovens; as mentioned above, it is known only that one oven was built in a rubble masonry chimney and that another was built in a cheminée double. In one document, an oven is listed with an iron door ("avec une porte idem de fer") [NOTE 75].

(ii) OUTSIDE OVENS

The location of outside ovens on a property varied: it could have been in the backyard [NOTE 76], against the garden [NOTE 77], against the house [NOTE 78] or against the storehouse [NOTE 79].

Once again, there are no structural details available and only two types of building material are mentioned: in 1717, 2,000 bricks were necessary for the repairs of the king's ovens located in Block 3 [NOTE 80] and, in 1739, the late René Herpin had "a small shed with a small oven of earth [probably of clay masonry] in poor condition ("un petit cabanot avec un petit four de terre en mauvais etat") on his property on the north side of the harbour [NOTE 81].

It is possible that some outside ovens had no shelters or very poor shelters, as they are mentioned only as four or fournil [NOTE 82]; this could explain their bad condition. But this might not always have been the case: the oven or fournil of Nicolas Bottier dit Berrichon, located in the Presqu'Ile du Quay, lot A, was mentioned twice as a fournil in the backyard, [NOTE 83], and once as an oven with six small barrels of flour [NOTE 84]; it is more likely that the flour would have been under some [PAGE 20:] kind of shelter, with the oven. Two ovens were clearly under a shelter: the Bottier oven was in a small shed, while the second was in an:

addition to the house ... used as fournil, the oven being fallen down and out of order, the said addition partly without roofing

un autre alonge aussi attenante a la maison du costé du Sudouest servante de fourny le four êtant tombé et hors de service icelle alonge en partie decouverte [NOTE 85].

The best shelter for an outside oven, of course, was a bakery.

(iii) BAKERIES

Properly speaking, bakeries were not for domestic use; they were for the king's services, for large fishing establishments, or for bakers as such.

There is information on two bakeries for the king's service: the first was built in Port Dauphin in 1715 and was made of boards and planks; the roof was covered with shingles or bark [NOTE 86]. The second one, in Fort Gaspareau, measured 16 pieds by 16 pieds and was covered with bark, at least in 1751 [NOTE 87].

De Costebelle had a bakery in Placentia for the use of the fishermen, which was:

77 [sic] pieds long by 21 pieds large, with a large brick oven, two big and good fir plank bread bins to hold 300 quintals of biscuits, with two kneading-troughs and a table of oak

de 77 pieds de longueur et 21 de largeur avec un grand four de Briques deux soutes de gros et bons madriers de sapin pouvant contenir 300 quintaux de biscuit avec deux mets et une table de bois de chesne [NOTE 88].

Another existed in the Fauxbourg de la Porte Dauphine [NOTE 89].

The only bakery belonging to a resident in Louisbourg was in the Presqu'Ile du Quay, in lot C, which was rented in 1750 by Etienne [PAGE 21:] Latappie, master baker; on this occasion, he agreed to repair the oven, to revet the outside of the bakery with boards where it was required, to coat the inside with earth or lime, and to make a floor on the ground level [NOTE 90].

(III) POTAGERS

Fourneau and potager sometimes mean the same thing, although the fourneau is part of the potager. According to secondary sources, the potager is usually the whole structure including the base and occasion- ally a hood; the fourneau is:

a masonry work made of bricks, which is approximately three pieds high and on which are concealed the rechaux which drop their ashes into a kind of vault under the fourneau & approximately toward the middle. The construction sustaining this masonry is of stone. The contours of the upper section are trimmed & tied with iron bands [NOTE 91].

Potagers were the rarest cooking features in private houses in Louisbourg; they are also the least documented. Although, the first potager appears in 1719 in the governor's quarters [NOTE 92], it is only in 1734 that one first appears in a private dwelling [NOTE 93]. They were always located in the kitchen on the ground floor, and had two or three fourneaux [NOTE 94]. One potager had three iron fourneaux and another had three fourneaux and three bond edges ("bords d'attache").

Only one of the four potagers known in private dwellings was mentioned before 1745; this may indicate that potagers were more frequent in the 1748-1758 period.

[PAGE 22:]

(3)

STOVES

More research will be required into the documents concerning stoves. Parts such as tripods, plates, locations and prices were not always considered for the Domestic Architecture File.

(I) TERMINOLOGY AND OTHER PROBLEMS

The term poêle designates in French a stove (m.) or a frying pan (f.). Since the language of the people in Isle Royale was very loose, only a careful study of the documents and specially of prices could determine what a specific poêle was. For this reason, some stoves may have been omitted in the compilation. Although stoves existed long before Louisbourg was founded, and some were stored for Louisbourg in Rochefort in 1719, [NOTE 95], they are mentioned in private dwellings only from 1734 [NOTE 96]. It seems certain, however, that after chimneys, stoves were the most common heating facility in Louisbourg. In most of the cases, only parts, such as plates, doors and/or pipe are mentioned. As indicated by the following table, it is possible that stoves were dismantled during the summer and stored elsewhere in the house. It is impossible to say if all the parts of the stoves are mentioned; in many cases, the door or the plate beneath the stove is missing. One cannot say if stoves existed without doors or plates beneath or if those parts were stored in another location during the inventory.

[PAGE 23:]

TABLE

MONTHLY STOVE LOCATIONS
AND THEIR STATE OF ASSEMBLY

(01) January

(A) Location:

(i) INSIDE = 1

(ii) OUTSIDE = 0

(iii) UNKNOWN = 0

(B) State:

(i) ASSEMBLED = 1

(ii) DISMANTLED = 0

(iii) UNKNOWN = 0

(02) February

(A) Location:

(i) INSIDE = 3

(ii) OUTSIDE = 0

(iii) UNKNOWN = 0

(B) State:

(i) ASSEMBLED = 2

(ii) DISMANTLED = 0

(iii) UNKNOWN = 1

(03) March

(A) Location:

(i) INSIDE = 5

(ii) OUTSIDE = 0

(iii) UNKNOWN = 1

(B) State:

(i) ASSEMBLED = 1

(ii) DISMANTLED = 0

(iii) UNKNOWN = 5

(04) April

(A) Location

(i) INSIDE = 0

(ii) OUTSIDE = 0

(iii) UNKNOWN = 0

(B) State:

(i) ASSEMBLED = 0

(ii) DISMANTLED = 0

(iii) UNKNOWN = 0;

(05) May

(A) Location

(i) INSIDE = 0

(ii) OUTSIDE = 0

(iii) UNKNOWN = 0

(B) State:

(i) ASSEMBLED = 0

(ii) DISMANTLED = 0

(iii) UNKNOWN = 0

(06) June

(A) Location

(i) INSIDE = 2

(ii) OUTSIDE = 0

(iii) UNKNOWN = 0

(B) State:

(i) ASSEMBLED = 0

(ii) DISMANTLED = 0

(iii) UNKNOWN = 0;

(07) July

(A) Location

(i) INSIDE = 1

(ii) OUTSIDE = 0

(iii) UNKNOWN = 0

(B) State:

(i) ASSEMBLED = 0

(ii) DISMANTLED = 0

(iii) UNKNOWN = 1;

(08) August

(A) Location

(i) INSIDE = 2

(ii) OUTSIDE = 0

(iii) UNKNOWN = 0

(B) State:

(i) ASSEMBLED = 0

(ii) DISMANTLED = 0

(iii) UNKNOWN = 2

(09) September

(A) Location:

(i) INSIDE = 2

(ii) OUTSIDE = 0

(iii) UNKNOWN = 0

(B) State:

(i) ASSEMBLED = 1

(ii) DISMANTLED = 0

(iii) UNKNOWN = 1

(10) October

(A) Location:

(i) INSIDE = 1

(ii) OUTSIDE = 2

(iii) UNKNOWN = 0

(B) State

(i) ASSEMBLED = 0

(ii) DISMANTLED = 2

(iii) UNKNOWN = 1

(11) November

(A) Location:

(i) INSIDE = 3

(ii) OUTSIDE = 0

(iii) UNKNOWN = 0

(B) State:

(i) ASSEMBLED = 1

(ii) DISMANTLED = 0

(iii) UNKNOWN = 2

(12) December

(A) Location:

(i) INSIDE = 4

(ii) OUTSIDE = 0

(iii) UNKNOWN = 0

(B) State:

(i) ASSEMBLED = 4

(ii) DISMANTLED = 0

(iii) UNKNOWN = 0

(13) TOTAL NUMBER OF STOVES BY LOCATION = 27

(i) INSIDE = 24

(ii) OUTSIDE = 2

(iii) UNKNOWN = 1

(14) TOTAL NUMBER OF STOVES BY STATE = 27

(i) ASSEMBLED = 10

(ii) DISMANTLED = 2

(iii) UNKNOWN = 15

As for the location of stoves within the house, one can conclude that they could have been anywhere where heat was required, in entrance rooms, bedrooms, cabinets, kitchens, etc. Although they are mainly on the ground floor, they could also have been on other storeys. Stoves were located even in rooms with a functional fireplace; the only logical limitation of location would have been easy access to a flue. A house [PAGE 24:] could have had more than one stove [NOTE 97].

Two types of stoves existed in Louisbourg: brick stoves and iron stoves:

TABLE

STOVE TYPES IN LOUISBOURG

(01) PIQUETS HOUSES

(A) IRON STOVES = 0

(B) BRICK STOVES = 4

(C) UNKNOWN

(02) CHARPENTE HOUSES

(A) IRON STOVES = 1

(B) BRICK STOVES = 1

(C) UNKNOWN = 0

(03) MASONRY HOUSES

(A) IRON STOVES = 0

(B) BRICK STOVES = 3

(C) UNKNOWN = 0

(04) UNKNOWN TYPES OF HOUSES

(A) IRON STOVES = 3

(B) BRICK STOVES = 9

(C) UNKNOWN = 6

(05) TOTAL NUMBER OF HOUSES = 27

(A) IRON STOVES = 4

(B) BRICK STOVES = 17

(C) UNKNOWN = 6

As indicated by the above table, brick stoves were by far the most popular and they were found in all types of houses. Iron stoves on the other hand were rare, perhaps due to their higher cost.

(II) IRON STOVES

There are very few details on iron stoves in the Domestic Architecture File. Usually, they were mentioned with their pipe, and, for one, "with a plate beneath ..." Two types existed: of cast iron or of sheet iron. Even if the price of only one is known, which was sold for 48 livres, it appears from the documents that elaborate cast iron stoves with biblical scenes were extremely rare: there is no mention of such stoves in any document [NOTE 98].

The only descriptions of iron stoves that have been encountered concern two stoves of special utility and it is more likely that at least one of them was not intended for private dwellings; these stoves [PAGE 25:] stored in Rochefort in 1719, were described as:

2 grands Poesles pour salles d'infirmerie de 4 pieds de long et de 3 de haut pes. 500 L chacun a 50 livres le ql ... 500 ...

2 Autres a chauffer des Sierges de Betulie de 2 p. 1/2 de Long sur 3 de haut pezt 400 L les deux a 50 livres le ql ... 200 ... [NOTE 99].

TRANSLATION

2 large stoves for infirmery 4 pieds long and 3 high weighing 500 livres each at 5 livres per quintal ... 500 ...

2 others to heat wax candle of Betulie 2 pieds 1/2 long by 3 high weighing 400 livres together at 50 livres per quintal ... 200 ...

(III) BRICK STOVES

Brick stoves were made of bricks, with a top plate, door and pipe [NOTE 100].

The pipe was made of sheet iron [NOTE 101] and was probably the same as for iron stoves. In 1744, the list of supplies bought for Louisbourg and stored in Rochefort included:

200 livres de taule pour tuyau de poele, de feuille simple, d'Un pied 1/2 de long sur 15 pouces de large a 44 livres le ql. ... 88

TRANSLATION

200 livres of sheet iron for stove pipe of single sheet of 1 pied 1/2 long by 15 pouces wide at 44 livres per quintal ... 88 ...

Their size varied: in 1734, the widow Desmarest paid 27 livres 5 sols for 6 sheets weighing 27 1/4 livres; but this difference in prices could have been a fluctuation due to transportation and profits [NOTE 103].

The door was also made of sheet iron; [NOTE 104] the only price available is 2 livres 10 sols 1 dernier [NOTE 105]; The top plate was made of cast iron with a hole at one end for the pipe [NOTE 106]; there is no mention of decoration. These plates must have been of very poor quality because in many cases they were listed as broken in two or several pieces [NOTE 107]. Two different types of plates were mentioned in the documents. In 1722, the storehouses of Rochefort had:

[PAGE 26:]

6 plaques de fer de 2 pieds de long sur 14 pces de large avec un trou à un des bouts a placer le tuyau pour poelles de Brique pest, le Tout 9O0 L a 30 livres le ql ... 270 livres [NOTE 108].

TRANSLATION

6 iron plate of 2 pieds long by 14 pouces large with a hole at one of the ends to fix the pipe for brick stoves weighing in all 900 L at 30 livres per quintal ... 270 livres ...

In 1744, the same storehouses had:

4 plaques de fer percées a un coin de 26 pouces de long sur 18 à 20 pouces pesant 35O L a 44 livres le qal. ...49 livres [NOTE 109].

TRANSLATION

4 iron plates pierced at one corner of 26 pouces long by 18 to 20 pouces weighing 350 L at 44 livres per quintal ... 49 livres ...

The following table will serve to determine the type of plate, according to the price and/or the weight, whenever these are found in other documents of the same period:

TABLE

(01) 1722

(A) SIZE in pouces = 24 X 14

(B) PRICE = 45 livres

(C) WEIGHT in livres = 150

(D) NOTES: n/a

(02) 1733

(A) SIZE in pouces = n/a

(B) PRICE = 12 livres

(C) WEIGHT in livres = n/a

(D) NOTES = n/a

(03) 1741

(A) SIZE in pouces = n/a

(B) PRICE = 30 livres

(D) WEIGHT in livres = n/a

(E) NOTES = n/a

(04) 1744

(A) SIZE in pouces = 26 X 18 - 20

(B) PRICE = 12 livres 5 sols

(C) WEIGHT in livres = 87 1/2

(D) NOTES = n/a

(05) 1752

(A) SIZE in pouces = n/a

(B) PRICE = 33 livres

(C) WEIGHT in livres = n/a

(D) NOTES = with pipe and door

(06) 1752

(A) SIZE in pouces = n/a

(B) PRICE = 17 livres 10 sols

(C) WEIGHT in livres = n/a

(D) NOTES = n/a

(07) 1753

(A) SIZE in pouces = n/a

(B) PRICE = 15 livres

(C) WEIGHT in livres = n/a

(D) NOTES = broken with pipe and door

Very little is known about brick masonry: in 1744, Latrompette, a soldier, was paid 19 livres "for clay for the stoves of the guard- [PAGE 27:] houses" ("pour terre grace pour les poeles des corps de garde")[NOTE 110].

The most complete picture of a brick stove is the one built in the Desmarest house in 1733, which included:

6 feuilles de Taulle pes. 27 L 1/4 ... 27 livres 5 sols

1 plaque de Poisle 12 livres 5 sols

p 300 Briques en 1733, 1734 et 1735 5 livres 8 sols [NOTE 111].

pour une porte de poelle ... 2 livres 10 sols 1 d. [NOTE 112].

total cost 47 1. 3 s. 1 d.

TRANSLATION

6 sheets of sheet iron weighing 27 livres 1/4 ... 27 livres 5 sols

1 stove plate ... 12 livres 5 sols

for 300 Bricks in 1733, 1734 and 1735 5 livres 8 sols ...

for a door for a stove ... 2 livres 10 sols 1 d.

There is no mention of foundations for any kind of stove.

Other variations of brick stoves might have existed:

(i) with top and bottom plate; [NOTE 113]

(ii) without a top plate (which might have involved a top made of bricks) [NOTE 114]

(iii) without door; [NOTE 115]

(iv) without top plate and door, [NOTE 116]

These variations remain hypothetical, for they may be due to the imprecision of the documents or the bad condition of dismantled or broken stoves.

It seems that the main use of stoves in the 18th century was for heating, and that stoves made especially for cooking did not appear before the 19th century; however, it is probable that stoves were used occasionally for cooking at an earlier date,

CONCLUSION

The most common heating and cooking facility in Louisbourg was the chimney. In fact, each house had at least one fireplace; one house [PAGE 28:] had eight. Depending on the financial situation and intention of the original owner, chimneys were made of materials ranging from primitive clay and straw masonry to brick masonry with plaster moldings or cut stone, or even marble.

Quite early in the history of the town, stoves, mainly of brick, began to supplement chimneys as heating facilities. A few properties also had ovens; bakeries were operated only by bakers or large fishing establishments.

The rarest cooking facility in Louisbourg was the potager; it was located in relatively more elaborate houses of the town.

APPENDIX

MAPS, PLANS AND VIEWS

Classification of maps according to the feature(s) shown:(01) Chimneys: 1718-1; 1718-5; 1724-1; 1725-4a; 1725-8; 1726-2; 1726-3; 1730-5; 1730-8a; 1733-9; 1733-9a; 1733-10; 1733-10a; 1733-11; 1733-11a; 1733-12; 1733-12a; 1734-9; 1737-3; 1737-5; 1739-4; 1739-5a; 1745-4; 1749-1; 1750-1b; 1752-10; ND-7; ND-7a; ND-21; ND-34; ND- 54; ND-82; ND-88; (02) OVENS: 1718-1; 1725-4a; 1725-8; 1726-1; 1726-2; 1728-1; 1730-8a; 1733- 12a; 1739-5a; 1745-4; 1750-1b; 1752-10; ND-7; ND-7a; ND-21; ND-82; (03) POTAGERS: 1718-1; 1725-4a; 1730-8a; 1733-9a; 1733-11a; 1739-5a; 1745-4; 1750-1b; 1752-10; (04) STOVE: ND-21.

ENDNOTES

[NOTE 1:] Transaction between Claude Perin and Thérèse-Josephe Perin, her daughter and her husband, Claude Caresmentrand. Louisbourg, 21 August, 1751. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 3, carton 2047 [-1], NO. 197. [NOTE 2:] Rent by Angélique Butel to Elie Allenet. Louisbourg, 12 September, 1757. Id., 2045, No. 37. [NOTE 3:] Devis of a house made by Michel Dubenca dit Nogaro for Pierre Aurieu. Louisbourg, 26 July, 1754. Id., 2042, No. 69; Inventory at Pierre Lorent's. Louisbourg, 13 February, 1758. A.N., Col., E 290, ff. 2-11. [NOTE 4:] Etienne Verrier. "Devis pour l'Etablissement des deux corps de batiments a faire en charpente au Port LaJoye [...]". Louisbourg, 10 September, 1733. A.N., Col., C 11 B, vol. 14, f. 355 v. [NOTE 5:] "Toisé de la Maison Mensarde de Mr. Vallée a Louisbourg". Louisbourg, 6 March, 1732. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 181, ff. 522-5Z7; "Conditions de la vente judiciaire de la maison de Sieur Francois Vallée ..." Louisbourg, 4 October, 1732. Id., ff. 505-547. [NOTE 6:] Sale of a land by André Villefayaud to Pascal. Louisbourg, 24 October, 1741. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 3, 2046 [-2], no. 21; Pierre Santier vs Blaise Cassagnolle. Louisbourg, 12 July, 1751. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 200, doss. 210, ff. 73-82. "Procés verbal d'une visite de cheminée". Louisbourg, 19 July, 1751. Id., vol. 209, doss. 494, piece 1; Claude Perin vs Claude Caresmantrand dit Champagne. Louisbourg, 23 November, 1753. Id., vol. 203, doss. 306, ff. 37v-38. [PAGE 30:] [NOTE 7:] Sale of a house by Laurent Dybarart to Michel Daccarrette. Louisbourg, 21 November, 1721. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 3, 2057, nos. 23 & 24. [NOTE 8:] Saint-Ovide to Maurepas. Louisbourg, 12 December, 1723. A.N., Col., C 11 B, vol. 6, f. 220; State of account of the widow Levasseur. [1738]. A.N., Marine, C 7, 184, f. 36v.; Gratien d'Arrigrand to Maurepas. [1741]. A.N., Col., E 9, f. 12. [NOTE 9:] Rent by André Monier dit Surgere to François Lucas. Louisbourg, 19 January, 1736. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 3, 2039 [-2], no. 44. [NOTE 10:] Bigot to Maurepas. Louisbourg, 4 October, 1740. A.N., Col., C 11 B, vol. 22, f. 158. [NOTE 11:] Sale of a land by François Chassin de Thiery to Pierre Lambert. Louisbourg, 15 September, 1741. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 3, 2046 [-2], no. 4; Sale of a land by Marie-Josephe Rousseau de Souvigny to Cantin Lelièvre. Louisbourg, 17 November, 1743. Id., 2047[-l], no. 40. [NOTE 12:] Conditions of the sale of François Vallée's house. Louisbourg, 4 October, 1732. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 181, ff. 505-547. [NOTE 13:] "Toisé de la Maison Mensarde de Mr. Vallée a Louisbourg". Louisbourg, 6 March, 1732. Id., vol. 181, ff. 522-527; several attempts to figure out those measurements have failed and archaeological excavations wouldn't be of any help: the Vallée house is under the Museum House ... [NOTE 14:] "Toisé définitif des ouvrages [ ... ] faits pour la construction du Magasin des Vivres [ ... ]." Louisbourg, 1 November, 1727. A.N., Col., C 11 B, vol. 9, ff. 180-192. [PAGE 31:] 15 Verrier to Maurepas. Louisbourg, 17 November, 1727. Id., f. 142. [NOTE 16:] Verrier to Maurepas. Louisbourg, 20 November, 1731. Id., vol. 12, f. 105v. [NOTE 17:]Sale of a house by Laurent Dybarart to Michel Daccarrette. Louis- bourg, 21 November, 1721. A.N., Section Outre- Mer, G 3, 2057, nos. 23 & 24. [NOTE 18:] Agreement between Dugue and Michel Dubenca. Louisbourg, 1 October, 1753. Id., 2041 [-1], no. 131. [NOTE 19:] Condamnation of Baillon to the benefit of the widow Castaing. Louisbourg, 26 May, 1758. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 212, doss. 554, ff. 14-15. [NOTE 20:] Claude Perin vs Claude Caresmantrand dit Champagne. Louisbourg, 23 November, 1753. Id., vol. 203, doss. 306, ff. 37v-38. [NOTE 21:] Pierre Santier vs Blaise Cassagnolle. Louisbourg, 12 July, 1751. Id., vol. 200, doss. 210, ff. 73-82. "Procès verbal d'une visite de cheminée". Louisbourg, 19 July, 1751. Id., vol. 209, doss. 494, piece 1. [NOTE 22:] Verrier to Maurepas. Louisbourg, 30 December, 1731. A.N., Col., C 11 B, vol. 12, f. 111. [NOTE 23:] Saint-Ovide to Maurepas. Louisbourg, 1727. Id., vol. 27, f. 315. [NOTE 24:] Maurepas to Beauharnois. 4 March, 1732. A.N., Col., B, vol. 56, ff. 170v- 172. [NOTE 25:] Maurepas to Beauharnois. 31 March, 1733. Id., vol. 58, f. 123. [NOTE 26:] Rent by Jean Claparède to Jacques Brunet. Louisbourg, 1 June, 1756. A.N., Section Outre- Mer, G 3, 2045, no. 67. [PAGE 32:] [NOTE 27:] "Etat des fonds ordonnés pour les fortifications de l'Isle Royalle ... " Louisbourg, 31 December, 1718. A.N., Col., C 11 B, vol, 3, ff. 119-130v; "Toisé de la Maison Mensarde de Mr. Vallée a louisbourg". Louisbourg, 6 March, 1732, A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 181, ff. 522-527. [NOTE 28:] "Toisé définitif des ouvrages ..." Louisbourg, 1 November, 1727, A.N., Col., C 11 B, vol. 9, ff. 180-192. [NOTE 29:] Agreement between Marie-Josephe Cheron, widow Carrerot, and Guillaume Halbot, Louisbourg, 30 March, 1751, A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 3, 2041 [-1], no. 126. [NOTE 30:] "Toisé de la Maison Mensarde ... " Louisbourg, 6 March, 1732, A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2. vol, 181, ff. 522-527. [NOTE 31:] Succession of Jean Bourguignon dit Bergerac, Louisbourg, 26 January, 1756. Id., vol. 205, doss. 388, f. lv. [NOTE 32:] "Toisé de la Maison Mensarde ..." Louisbourg, 6 March, 1732. Id., vol. 181, ff. 522-527. [NOTE 33:] Verville to the Council of the Marine. Louisbourg, 29 November, 1719. A.N., Col., C 11 B, vol. 4, f. 224v. [NOTE 34:] "Devis et Conditions a observer pour ceux qui entreprendront les ouvrages ..." Louisbourg [?], 25 September, 1753. Archives du Séminaire de Québec, Papiers Surlaville. [NOTE 35:] "Toisé de la Maison Mensarde ... " Louisbourg, 6 March, 1732. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol, 181, ff. 522-527. [NOTE 36:] Sale of a house by laurent Dybarart to Michel Daccarrette, Louis- bourg, 21 November, 1721. A.N., Section Outre- Mer, G 3, 2057, nos. 23 & 24. [PAGE 33:] [NOTE 37:] Saint-Ovide to Maurepas. Louisbourg, 1727. A.N., Col., C 11 B, Vol. 27, f. 315. [NOTE 38:] Verrier to Maurepas. Louisbourg, 10 November, 1736. Id., Vol. 18, f. 273v. [NOTE 39:] De Forant to Maurepas. Louisbourg, 23 December, 1739. Id., vol. 21, ff. 90-91. [NOTE 40:] Verrier to Maurepas. Louisbourg, 17 November, 1727. Id., Vol. 9, f. 142. [NOTE 41:] Repairs of a house. Louisbourg, 7 August, 1752. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, Vol. 208, doss. 475, piece 72. [NOTE 42:] Paris vs Vinet. Louisbourg, 17 June, 1726. Id., Vol. 179, f. 65. [NOTE 43:] Morin vs Lucas. Louisbourg, [1730-1736]. Id., Vol. 188, f. 336. [NOTE 44:] Rent by André Monier dit Surgere to François Lucas. Louisbourg, 19 January, 1736. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 3, 2039 [-2], no. 44. [NOTE 45:] Agreement between the widow Rodrigue and Sébastien-François-Ange Le Normant. Louisbourg, 9, May, 1736. Id., no. 32. [NOTE 46:] Verrier to Maurepas. Louisbourg, 10 November, 1736. A.N., Col., C 11 B, vol. 18, f. 273v. [NOTE 47:] "Toisé de la Maison Mensarde ..." Louisbourg, 6 March, 1732. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, Vol. 181, ff. 522-527. [NOTE 48:] Etienne Verrier. "Toisé Définitif des Ouvrages ... pour la con- struction du logement de l'Ingénieur en chef, Scitué dans l'enclos des Magasins du Roy". Louisbourg, 30 September, 1734. A.N., Col., C 11 B., vol. 16, ff. 196-213; Exchange of houses between Antoine Letrange and Claude Perrin. Louisbourg, 19 April, 1736. A.N., Section Outre- Mer, G 3, 2039 [-2], no. 34. [PAGE 34:] [NOTE 49:] "Payments faits par Desmarest ... " Louisbourg, 1734. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 208, doss. 479, piece 29. [NOTE 50:] Etienne Verrier. "Toisé définitif ... " Louisbourg, 30 September, 1734. A.N., Col., C 11 B, vol. 16, ff. 196-213. [NOTE 51:] Id. [NOTE 52:] Trial for theft at LeNormant's house on the North side of the harbour. Louisbourg, 22 January, 1735. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 195, doss. 81, f. 1. [NOTE 53:] "Apposition des scellés chez feu Pierre Herpin". Louisbourg, 9 March, 1757. Id., vol. 211, doss. 538, piece 2. [NOTE 54:] The measurements of a cord, 4 feet x 4 feet x 8 feet, would be a good indication for the usual width of a fireplace. [NOTE 55:] "Inventaire des biens de la communauté d'entre Gabriel Biron dit Lagelée, Magdelaine Rimbeau, et ses enfants de son premier mariage avec Longue Epée". Louisbourg, 16 June, 1733. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 182, ff. 556-567. [NOTE 56:] Desherbiers to Rouillé. Louisbourg, 5 November, 1749. A.N., Col., C 11 B, vol. 28., f. 81v. [NOTE 57:] Concerning the late Pierre Lambert. Louisbourg, 16 September, 1757. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 206, doss. 469, f. 12 v. [NOTE 58:] Rent of a house by Robert Duhaget to Daniel Augier. Louisbourg, 20 July, 1753. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 3, 2041[-2], no. 41. [NOTE 59:] Trial for theft by Lahaye, Dubois and Aulier de St. Louis. Louisbourg, 1 April, 1726. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 179, doss. 149, f. 287. [PAGE 35:] [NOTE 60:] De Couagne to Choiseil. Saint-Pierre, 15 September, 1763. A.N., Col., E 94, ff. 5-6v. [NOTE 61:] Trial for theft near Port Toulouse by L'Espagnol. Louisbourg, 1 May, 1733. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 182, doss. 412, ff. 439 & 458. [NOTE 62:] M. Blondel. "Fournil" in Diderot. Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences des arts et des métiers. Tome VII (Paris, 1757). pp. 248-248v. [NOTE 63:] Pierre Chabat. Dictionnaire des termes employés dans la construction. Vol. I (Paris, 1875). p. 631. [NOTE 64:] Robert-Lionel Séguin. La Civilisation traditionnelle de l'"habitant" aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles. (Montreal, 1967). PP. 351-352. [NOTE 65:] Raoul Mortier, dir. Dictionnaire encyclopédique Quillet. Vol. 3 (Paris, 1962). P. 2273. [NOTE 66:] Larousse du XXe siècle. Vol. 3 (Paris, 1930). P. 589. [NOTE 67:] Rent of an habitation by father Felix Camay to Jacques Aurieux. Louisbourg, 14 November, 1738. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 3, 2046[-l], no. 96. [NOTE 68:] Inventory of the goods of the late Nicolas Berrichon. Louisbourg, 4 April, 1721. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 208, doss. 476, piece 1. [NOTE 69:] "Denombrement des biens immobiliers que le Sr. de Costebelle Gouverneur de L'Isle Royale a esté contraint d'abandonner lors de l'evacuation de Plaisance dans Lisle de terreneuve". Louisbourg, 1717. A.N., Col., E 93, ff. 26-26v; Council of the Marine to - ... 22 May 1717. [PAGE 36:] A.N., Col., C 11 B, vol. 2. f. 77; La Grange to the comte de Toulouze. Louisbourg, 21 October, 1722. A.N., Col., C 11 C, vol. 15[-2], piece 230. [NOTE 70:] Rent of a house by Joseph Lartigue to Nicolas Dharmes. Louisbourg, 26 March, 1755. A.N., Section Outre- Mer, G 3, 2043, no. 61. [NOTE 71:] "Estimation des maisons que le sr. Lagrange a fait faire au havre de Louisbourg". Louisbourg, 18 February, 1717. A.N., Col., C 11 C, vol. 15[-2], piece 230; "LaGrange à son Altesse serenissime: Le Comte de Toulouze". Louisbourg, 21 October, 1722. Id., piece 230, p. 4. [NOTE 72:] "Inventaire des biens de la communauté dentre Gabriel Biron dt. Lagelee, Magdelaine Rimbeau, et ses enfants de son premier mariage avec Longue Epée". Louisbourg, 16 June, 1733. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 182, ff. 556-567. [NOTE 73:] Rent of a house by Joseph Lartigue to Nicolas Dharmes. Louisbourg, 26 March, 1755. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 3, 2043, no. 61. [NOTE 74:] Sale of the house of Judith Pansard La Bretonniere on the North side of the harbour. Louisbourg, 4 April, 1735. A.N., Section Outre- Mer, G 2, vol. 194, f. 283v. [NOTE 75:] Rent of a house by Jean Claparede to Jacques Brunet. Louisbourg, 1 June, 1756. A.N., Section Outre- Mer, G 3, 2046, no. 67. [NOTE 76:] "Inventaire des effets de feu sieur Nicolas Berrichon". Louisbourg, 4 April, 1721. A.N., Section Outre- Mer, G 2, vol. 208, doss. 476, no. 1; Rent of a property by the heirs Bottier to François Dupont Duvivier. Louisbourg, 22 November, 1732. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 3, 2038[-1], no. 94; Rent of a property by the heirs Bottier to [PAGE 37:] Nicolas Bottier. Louisbourg, 19 September, 1735. Id., 2039[-1], no. 134. [NOTE 77:] Le Brun vs La Boularderie. Louisbourg, 27 September, 1726. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 180, f. 365. [NOTE 78:] Inventory of the goods of the late Jean Chevalier. Louisbourg, 15 November, 1720. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 3, 2057, no. 31. [NOTE 79:] De Mezy vs Rodrigue. Louisbourg, 27 September, 1726. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 178, f. 247. [NOTE 80:] Council of the Marine to - ... 22 May, 1717. A.N., Col., C 11 B, vol. 2. f. 77. [NOTE 81:]Inventory of the goods of René Herpin. Louisbourg, 13 March, 1739. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 185, f. 369v. [NOTE 82:] Concession of a house to Michel Ballan, sr. de la Combe. Louisbourg, 15 October, 1715. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 3, 2056, no. 44; Council of the Marine to - ... 22 May, 1717. A.N., Col., C 11 B, vol. 2, f. 77; De Mezy vs Rodrigue. Louisbourg, 15 June, 1721. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 178, f. 248; Council of the Marine to De Mezy. 7 December, 1721. A.N., Col., C 11 C, vol. 15 [-2], f. 211; La Grange to the comte de Toulouze. Louisbourg, 21 October, 1722. Id., piece 230, p. 7; Le Brun vs La Boularderie. Louisbourg, 27 September, 1726. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 180, f. 365; Rent of a property by Jean Milly to Jacques Martin. Louisbourg, 1 May, 1741. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 3, 2046[-2], no. 51. [NOTE 83:] Rent of a property by the heirs Bottier to Franqois Dupont Duvivier. Louisbourg, 22 November, 1732. Id., 2038[-1], no. 94; Rent of a [PAGE 38:] property by the heirs Bottier to Nicolas Bottier. Louisbourg, 19 September, 1735. Id., 2039[-l], no. 134. [NOTE 84:] Inventory of the goods of the late Nicoals Berrichon. Louisbourg, 4 April, 1721. A.N., Section Outre- Mer, G 2, vol. 208, doss. 476, piece 1. [NOTE 85:] Inventory of the goods of the late Jean Chevalier. Louisbourg, 15 November, 1750. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 3, 2057, no. 31. [NOTE 86:] L'Hermitte to the Council of the Marine. Louisbourg, 26 August, 1715. A.N., Col., C 11 B, vol. 1, ff. 223-225. [NOTE 87:] "Voyage du Sieur Franquet". Louisbourg, 29 December, 1751. A.N., Col., C 11 C. vol. 9. f. 161; the king's bakery in Block 1 have not been included in this study. [NOTE 88:] "Dénombrement des biens imobiliers que le sr. de Costebelle Gouverneur de L'isle Royalle a esté contraint d'abandonner lors de l'evacuation de Plaisance dans Lisle de terreneuve". Louisbourg, 1717. A.N., Col., E 93, f. 26. [NOTE: 89] Rent of a property by Jean Seigneur to Pierre Detcheverry. Louisbourg, 25 October, 1734. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 3, 2039[-l] no. 10. [NOTE 90:] Rent of a property by Joseph Lachaume to Etienne Latappie. Louis- bourg, 16 December, 1750. Id., 2047[-l], no. 133. [NOTE 91:]Diderot. Encyclopédie. Vol. VII, p. 233. [NOTE 92:]De Couagne and Saint-Ovide. "Etat de la depense faite à appartement destiné pour le gouverneur pendant l'année 1719". Louisbourg, 26 November, 1719. A.N., Col., C 11 B, vol. 4, f. 147. [PAGE 39:] [NOTE 93:] "Payments faits par Desmarest ... Louisbourg, 1734. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 208, doss. 479, piece 29. [NOTE 94:] De Couagne and Saint-Ovide. "Etat de la dépense faite ... " Louisbourg, 26 November, 1719. A.N., Col., C 11 B, vol. 4, f. 147; "Payments faits par Desmarest ... " Louisbourg, 1734. A.N., Section Outre- Mer., G 2, vol. 208, doss. 479, piece 29; Rent of a house by Joseph Lartigue to Nicolas Dharmes. Louisbourg, 26 March, 1755. A.N., Section-Outre Mer, G 3, 2043, no. 61; Rent of a house by Jean Claparede to Jacques Brunet. Louisbourg, 1 June 1756. Id., 2045, no. 67; Rent of a house by Angélique Butel to Elie Allenet. Louisbourg, 12 September, 1757. Id., no. 37. [NOTE 95:] State of the merchandises in the storehouses of Rochefort for Louisbourg. Rochefort, 22 April, 1719. A.N., Col., F 1 A, vol. 21, ff. 77-82v. [NOTE 96:] "Pour compte avec Made Desmarest et a la succession". Louisbourg, n.d. A.N., Marine, C 7, 184 (doss. Levasseur), f. 38. [NOTE 97:] Inventory of the goods of the late Michel de Gannes. Louisbourg, 31 October, 1752. A.N. Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 201, doss. 254, piece 2, doc. 1; Inventory of the goods of the late Philibert Pineau. Louisbourg, 22 November, 1757. Id., vol. 209, doss. 512, piece 4. [NOTE 98:] "Inventaire des meubles de la succession de feu sr Decouagne ingénieur". Louisbourg, 4 February, 1740, and "Vente des meubles de feu Jean Bte Decouagne". Louisbourg, 28-29 April, 1740. Id., vol. 197, doss. 129, piece 19; Inventory at Simone Millou, widow [PAGE 40:] Lafloury. Louisbourg, 2 December, 1744. Id., vol. 198, doss. 184, f. 3; Inventory at the late widow Delort. Louisbourg, 22 December, 1753. Id., vol. 202, doss. 296, f. 4v; Inventory of the goods of the late Gregoire Chapelard. Louisbourg, 7 December, 1757. Id., vol. 211, doss. 537, piece 8. [NOTE 99:] State of the merchandises in Rochefort. Rochefort, 22 April, 1719. A.N., Col., F 1 A, vol. 21, ff. 77- 82v. [NOTE 100:] Succession of Jean Bourguigon. Louisbourg, 26 January, 1756. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 205, doss. 388, f. lv; "Apposition des scelles chez le feu Pierre Herpin". Louisbourg, 9 March, 1757. Id., vol. 211, doss. 537, piece 2. [NOTE 101:] Idem; Inventory of the goods of the late Louis Lécuyer. Louisbourg, 27 March, 1750. Id., vol. 211, doss. 519, pieces 2 & 5; Succession of Blaise Lagoanere. Louisbourg, 12 September, 1753. Id., vol. 202, doss. 284, f. 2; Inventory of the goods of the late Philibert Pineau. Louisbourg, 22 November, 1757. Id., vol. 209, doss. 512, piece 4. [NOTE 102:] State of the merchandise in Rochefort. Rochefort, 22 February, 1744. A.N., Col., F 1 A, vol. 35, ff. 70-75. [NOTE 103:] "Pour compte avec Made Desmarest et a la succession". Louisbourg, n.d. A.N., Marine, C 7, 184 (doss. Levasseur), f. 38. [NOTE 104:] Inventory at Chevalier's. Louisbourg, 2 June, 1734. A.N., Section Outre- Mer, G 2, vol. 194, doss. 57, f. 161v; Inventory of the goods of sr. François Chevalier. Louisbourg, 2 June, 1734. Id., vol. 183, f. 59; "Balance des magasins du Roy a Lisle Royalle". Louisbourg, 1742. A.N., Col., C 11 B, vol. 24, f. 270v; Inventory of the goods of Henry Nadau. Louisbourg, 14 March, 1743. A.N., Section [PAGE 41:] Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 198, doss. 170, p. 12; Inventory of the goods of the late Louis Lecuyer. Louisbourg, 27 March, 1750. Id., vol. 211, doss. 519, pieces 2 & 5; "Apposition des scelles dans la maison loué par feu Jean-Pierre Grégoire appartenante a Sieur Degoutins Sur la Rue d'Orleans". Louisbourg, 21 March, 1757. Id., vol. 209, doss. 507, piece 10; Inventory of the goods of the late Philibert Pineau. Louisbourg, 22 November, 1757. Id., vol. 209, doss. 512, piece 4; Inventory at Jean-Henry Morel and his widow Charlotte Ruelle. Louisbourg, 29 December, 1757. A.N., Col., E 317, ff. 2v-3; Inventory at Pierre Lorent's. Louisbourg, 13 February, 1758. Id., 290, f. 4. [NOTE 105:] "Madame Desmarest Doit a Montpellier Du 8e 9bre 1736". Louisbourg, 26 October, 1737. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 208, doss. 475, f. 48. [NOTE 106:] Bigot. "Bordereau des paiements ... " Louisbourg, 18 October, 1741. A.N., Col., C 11 B, vol. 23, f. 169v; "Balance des magasins du Roy a Lisle Royalle". Louisbourg, 1742. Id., vol. 24, f. 269v; Inventory of the goods of the late Louis Lecuyer. Louisbourg, 27 March, 1750. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 211, doss. 519, pieces 2 & 5; Succession of Jean Bourguignon. Louisbourg, 26 January, 1756. Id., vol. 205, doss. 388, f. lv. [NOTE 107:] Inventory of René Herpin. Louisbourg, 13 March, 1739. Id., vol. 185, f. 366; Inventory of the goods of the late Louis Lecuyer. Louisbourg, 27 March, 1750. Id., vol. 211, doss. 519, pieces 2 & 5; "Inventaire de la communauté entre Louis Bertin et feue Anne Henriette [PAGE 42:] Lagrange". Louisbourg, 3 July, 1753. Id., vol. 202, doss. 281, piece 2; Inventory of the goods of the late Julien Fizel. Louisbourg, 3 August, 1757. Id., vol. 209, doss. 508, piece 4; Inventory of the goods of the late Philibert Pineau. Louisbourg, 22 November, 1757. Id., vol. 209, doss. 512, piece 4. [NOTE 108:] State of the merchandises in Rochefort. Rochefort, 19 February, 1722. A.N., Col., F 1 A, vol. 22, ff. 229-232v. [NOTE 109:] State of the merchandises in Rochefort. Rochefort, 22 February, 1744. Id., vol. 35, ff. 70-75. [NOTE 110:] Bigot. "Bordereau des paiements ... " Louisbourg, November, 1744. A.N., Col., C 11 B, vol. 26, f. 179v. [NOTE 111:] "Pour Compte avec Made Desmarest et a la succession". Louisbourg, n.d. A.N., Marine, C 7, 184 (doss. Levasseur), f. 38. [NOTE 112:] "Madame Desmarest Doit a montpellier Du 8e 9bre 1736". Louisbourg, 26 October, 1737. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, G 2, vol. 208, doss. 475, f. 48. [NOTE 113:] Inventory of the goods of the late Michel de Gannes. Louisbourg, 31 October, 1752. Id., vol. 201, doss. 254, piece 2, p. 8. [NOTE 114:] Inventory at Chevalier's. Louisbourg, 2 June, 1734. Id., vol. 194, doss. 57, f. 161v; Inventory of the goods of the late François Chevalier. Louisbourg, 2 June, 1734. Id., vol. 183, ff. 55-64; Inventory of the goods of Henry Nadau. Louisbourg, 14 March, 1743. Id., vol. 198, doss. 170, p. 12. [NOTE 115:] "Scelle chez St. Joyeux". Louisbourg, 15 June, 1753. Id., vol. 202, doss. 278, piece 1. Succession of Blaise Lagoanere. Louisbourg, 12 September, 1753. Id., vol. 202, doss. 284, f. 2; [PAGE 43:] Inventory of the goods of the late Jean Barré. Louisbourg, 23 November, 1757. Id., vol. 209, doss. 511, piece 4. [NOTE 116:] Inventory at Joseph Le Chartier. Louisbourg, 23 September, 1754. A.N., Col., E 268, f. 8.

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