H F 16A E - I. Clothing: Civil Costume at Louisbourg: 1713-1758

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Whether of rough cloth for the fisherman or fine cloth for the great merchant broker, the shirt was an indispensable item of clothing. During the day, men wore shirts against their skin, with a vest and breeches. The night shirt or Amadis shirt (chemise en Amadis) was made of "light cloth with more narrow sleeves". [1] The term "amadis" was not used at Louisbourg, but Governor Duquesnel, for example, owned sixteen "nightshirts" (chemises de nuit) at about 10 livres each. [2]

However the word "shirt" alone was most often used, since night shirts and shirts worn during the day were probably very similar. The shirt usually reached to knee-height. It was open at each side, and split at the front from collar to chest. The sleeves "reached beyond the hands; but were attached at the end of the arm by buttoned cuffs". To this basic style could be added trimming "of finer cloth, plain or embroidered, or of lace; the trimmings at the cuffs are called manchettes ... that at the front is called jabot ..."[3]

The making of a shirt [4] began with the preparation of sleeves. To start, one folded a rectangle of cloth along its length and then sewed the two sides, leaving an opening of two pouces at one end to insert the armpit gusset and an opening of three pouces at the other end. Each side of this opening, called the fourchette of the cuff, was hemmed. Next the sleeve of the shirt was folded to the size of the cuff, to which it could then be sewed. The cuff is a narrow strip of fabric, doubled over. Its size could be adjusted to the wrist size of the wearer. Each side of the cuff had a button-hole. The body of the shirt was a long piece two aunes (approximately 94 inches) or a little less in length, folded over unevenly to make the front slightly shorter than the back. A six pouce cut was made in the front of the fabric for the opening of the jabot (a frill or ruffle of lace at the throat). The end of this cut was reinforced by a heart-shaped gusset called the coeur du jabot. At the neckline, the cloth was cut on the fold, to the right and left of the hole for the 'a.1 bat, to six inches from the shoulder. At each side, the upper third was left open to receive the sleeve; the middle third was sewn and reinforced by a gusset at the bottom; and the bottom third was left open.

The collar piece was a band of toile adjusted in length to the size of the wearers neck. Its width varied according to taste. It was folded along its length and the doubled band sewn at the neck of the shirt closed with two or three buttons.

Then the sleeves were attached. They were sewn to the body of the shirt, with flat folds on the upper side of the shoulder.

Accounts of inventories or public sales at Louisbourg are brimming with references to shirts. Often they tell nothing but the number of shirts, or add only the most vague details such as "common", "trimmed", "old", "used", "of poor quality". In general, then, men wore shirts as simple as those described above, made of toile. (See Table No. 1)

Throughout the history of Louisbourg, this fashion was unchanged. One finds a certain stability in comparing documents predating and post-
dating the English occupation of 1745-1748.

However the quality or type of toile could vary, as could the trimmings added to the shirt, and there are few exceptions to normal colours, styles and fabrics.

A few examples of price will show that a variety of qualities existed. In 1743 six used shirts which had belonged to a fisherman (compagnon pêcheur) were valued at 13 sols 4 derniers each.[5] In the following year, the effects of Governor Duquesnel included eighty-one trimmed shirts ranging in value from 4 to 14 livres.[6]

The amount of wear on these articles partially explains the divergence in price; but the quality of the toile must also be considered. (See Table No. 2) Shirts of toile d'Alaçon for example, were a luxury available only to the wealthy. Even simple white toile implies a concern for quality since the frequent washings required must have represented a great deal of work.[7] Hence it was rare for common people to wear those shirts, unless they had found some way to enrich themselves. In one case, a soldier drew attention to himself by wearing shirts of good quality stolen from a merchant. Questioned about it, a witness answered that he had not "suspected that the shirts had been stolen because the said Paquet usually wore the best, having earned a let of money the previous year..."[8]

Rough unbleached toile (la grosse toile écrue) was the most common type. It served in the making of the shirts sold by the merchants and probably also those classed simply as "common". This was cloth without

its fibers bleached: it was left in its original state, which was gray in the case of flax and yellowed if made of hemp.[9]

Apart from these two colours and white, coloured shirts were very rare. In all the consulted documents, there are only four shirts of striped cotton; [10] one of "blue Zainga toile"; [11] one of striped blue toile; [12] three of "blue checked cotton" and three other "blue";[13] one of "striped toile" and one of blue gingham.[14]

Except for the coloured cottons noted above and one other of "cottonade", [15] toile was always the fabric used.

Finally, several style specifications can be found. In 1734, the inventory of the goods of a drowned man, likely a fisherman, included "basque" shirts.[16] In four other inventories, all of merchants, can be found twenty-four "sailor's shirts" (chemises de matelot) in 1720;[17] thirty "fisherman's shirts" (chemises pour pêcheurs) in 1738,[18] fifty-eight "Saint Malo shirts" (chemises malouine) in 1743 [19] and twelve "Breton shirts" (chemises bretonnes) in 1756. [19a] Evidently these qualifying terms refer to styles of shirts favoured by seamen, so it is not surprising to find mention of them at Louisbourg, where fishing was an important activity. However, we have no information which would enable us to describe this shirt.

When trimmed, fine shirts had cuffs and a frill (jabot) of muslin, lace or batiste, either plain or embroidered. These were bands of cloth folded and sewn to the wrists of the shirt and along the cut prepared for the jabot. They were usually sewn permanently to the shirt, but if the cuffs were embroidered or made of lace, they would be mounted on a tape fixed to the wrist "which one detaches when the shirt is to be washed". [20]

At Louisbourg, mention of trimmed shirts is fairly common, but although there are lace-trimmed shirts amongst the personal effects of a merchant, [21] nothing suggests that the cuffs were removable from the shirt. As well as lace, toile and cotton, [22] muslin, [23] and batiste [24] were used for trimming.

The occupation of those who possessed these shirts bears witness, if not to certain wealth, at least to a relatively high social status. We find these shirts belonging to:

The collar (" le col" also called tour de col and tour de cou) was a band of muslin or dimity with each end folded and ending with a small, narrower piece of toile; it attached to the shirt at the back of the neck with a buckle or up to three buttons depending on the size of the collar.[34]

At Louisbourg, collars were made of cotton or muslin. Also found were records of twenty-eight black velvet ones in a merchant's possession. [35] It is unlikely that these would have been worn with a shirt. Such a heavy fabric would probably be worn with a suit or outer garment, especially because the male wardrobe had no scarf or other article to protect the neck from the cold. Collars were always owned by those who owned trimmed shirts.

The cravate, a rectangle of muslin, [36] was worn tied around the neck. At Louisbourg, cravates were more rare than collars, from which they did not differ greatly, since they were sometimes confused: "cravate or collar': [37] There were cravates of white toile [38]and even of black taffeta (taffetas noire) belonging to a merchant-broker. [39] Curiously, the fishermen who had neither trimmed shirts nor collars, sometimes had cravates since one of them had a muslin cravate [40] and another had two in rough white toile. [41]

Possibly buttons were used to attach the collar, since collars had button-holes. Some however used hooks (agrafes), as noted by a merchant's inventory which included ten "tin hooks for collars". [42]

The sleeves were closed by buttons made from various qualities of metal. Some were so refined that they were virtually jewels. Governor Duquesnel had golden sleeve buttons [43] as did a merchant-broker [44] and a ship captain. [45] Others, including the clerk of the Superior Council, [46] a ship's carpenter, [47] a merchant [48] and the bailiff of the Superior Counci1,[49] had silver sleeve buttons. A merchant even had "shirt buttons: stone mounted in silver". [50] However copper was less expensive and sold in greater quantities: there are records of one hundred and fifty-one pairs for as little as 16 livres in the merchandise inventoried in 1756. [51]

The men's wardrobe included underclothes, drawers and camisoles, as well as garments which were only worn indoors, called robes de chambre but their use does not seem to have been widespread.

It is difficult to give the precise meaning of the term "caleçon" in the 18th century. Diderot gives no definition for the term, but refers the word to "skinner" (peaussier) for, he says, "Master 'skinners and tanners of leather' become 'drawer-makers' because their laws permit them to send good leather for the making of drawers, which they could also make and sell themselves" .[52] It was the custom of the period to line breeches (culottes) with leather. Hence it is a strong possibility that drawers were some part of under clothing. At Louisbourg, there are about twenty documentary references to them, and in the two cases where the material is specified, they are drawers made of toile [53]

Camisoles or undervests are mentioned even less frequently, and it is not certain that they were always worn as undergarments. We have seen above that it was customary to wear a shirt directly against the skin, and it is known that the term "camisole" also can refer to a type of waistcoat (gilet). When made of flannel, as is the case with two camisoles in Duquesnel's inventory, [54] they were worn under a shirt. Besides two other camisoles, made of dimity (basin) listed in the same inventory, we do not know what other fabrics were used for camisoles.

As the name (robe de chambre) indicates, the dressing-gowns were probably worn indoors. They were only found in the well furnished wardrobes of the governor, ship or schooner captains or rich merchant-brokers. The gown sometimes had a matching vest which suggests that it was a fairly formal garment, though it would only be worn in private. Those recorded at Louisbourg were made of calamance (en calmande), a cloth of wool or wool and silk; [55] of various kinds of cotton (cotonnade, indienne); or of "satinette" (satinade). They were sometimes lined. We have not found a description of this garment in the documents, but Diderot, who included it among tailor-made articles, ("articles confectionnés par le tailleur") gives an illustration, reproduced at the end of the text. Also, several examples explain more precisely the types of fabrics used and show the differences in quality:

Typical masculine apparel in the 18th century consisted of "the complete suit, French or European, that is, coat (justaucorps), vest and breeches" . [59] This rather theoretical definition could be varied. Whether by taste or wealth, the redingotte replaced the justaucorps, and sometimes only breeches and a waistcoat (gilet) would be worn. Terminologies varied. The same garment might have different names applied to it, or the same term might cover more than one garment. We have judged it useful to avoid confusion by presenting a table of definitions, equivalents and examples. (See Table No. 3)

In 1768, in Paris, M. de Garsault published L'Art du Tailleur, a work illustrating the, methods of 18th century tailors and the clothes they made. The book was used by Diderot for his descriptions of that trade in the Encyclopédie. [60] Later Norah Waugh produced a fairly good summary of the original text in contemporary language, making the work much more accessible. The text is accompanied by illustrations and concise technical explanations. In order to reproduce costumes, it is recommended that one consult Waugh's book as well as the explanations given here and in the Encyclopédie. [61]

BREECHES	D: "The part of our clothing which covers the thighs". (Diderot, "Tailleur")
CAMISOLE	D: 1. "Sleeved casaque which from 1560 and in the 17th century was worn beneath the shirt and doublet." (Larousse XX siècle, "camisole") 2. "The camisole or gilet is worn next to the skin (flannel) or over the shirt (various materials). It is made like the waistcoat [i.e. vest] with or without sleeves. It is unlined but faced down the front and buttoned with very small buttons" (Waugh) E: Gilet
FROCK-COAT	D: "The volant is also a coat but has no buttonholes or buttons on the sleeve, no pocket flaps ... it has a collar with button and buttonhole; it is usually worn over the coat". (Waugh) E: Overcoat (surtout) (Lb. see "surtout" E.4)
JUSTAUCORPS	D: We have found no specific definition of this garment. However, all evidence confirms that it was the garment worn with breeches and over the vest. It would be the equivalent of today's jacket worn with slacks and a vest. E: 1. Suit (see suit D.2, E.1) 2. Overcoat (Waugh)
OVERCOAT	D: 1. Tailoring term given to a Justaucorps worn over other clothing in winter (Diderot, "surtout"). 2. Simple garment worn over all other garments (Larousse XX siècle, "surtout"). 3. "The surtout is a country coat but now worn in town. The only difference is that the buttonholes stop at pocket level and there are only three buttonholes on the centre vack vent. Usually with a collar". (Waugh) E: 1. Suit (see suit, E.2) 2. Justaucorps (Waugh) (see surtout D.1) 3. Redingotte (1b., see redingotte, E.1) 4. Frock-coat (Lb.)e.g. "A surtout or volant with vest and breeches" (Procès verbal de vente des effets de feu François Gassot. Louisbourg, 19 août 1752. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, Série G2, Vol. 201, Dossier 251)
POLONAISE	D: The term polonaise is used for a style popular at the time of the marriage of Louis XV to the daughter of the King of Poland. Vests of this style were typified by frogging, a type of braid or cord sewn on the front of the vest. It went across the front of the vest and formed a pattern about the buttonholes. (Lacroix) They were sometimes called "veste à la polonaise". (Procès verbal d'inventaire des biens de feu Pierre de Saint Malo. Louisbourg, 6 September 1752. A.N., Section Outre Mer, Série G2, Vol. 201, Dossier 253). More often, they were called simply "polonaise": "a polonaise and breeches of pinchinot [coarse woollen material)" (Procès verbal d'inventaire des biens de feu Bonaventure Lebrun. Louisbourg, 18 July 1740. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, Série G2., Vol. 197, Dossier 144). E: Vest (Lb.)
REDINGOTTE	D: "The Redingotte is a recent fashion imported from England and is, like its English name, a riding coat. It is a cloak with sleeves, and buttons to the waist. It has a collar like the Surtout and the back of the neck is arranged in pleats which are hidden by a cape collar (rotonne). The sleeves have boot cuffs with three buttons and buttonholes and are lined with linen. The fronts are lined to the waist with the same material. There are sometimes pockets on the side seams. The centre back vent is only half as high as that of the coat". (Waugh) E: Overcoat (Lb.) ex.: "un surtout ou redingotte". (Procès verbal d'inventaire des biens de feu Philibert Génier. Louisbourg, 13 février 1742. A.N., Section-Outre-Mer, Série G2, Vol. 198, Dossier 158).
SUIT	D: 1. "The complete habit French or European is a justaucorps,, vest and ... breeches". (Diderot, "Tailleur") e.g.: "Please send me the materials for a suit: justaucorps, vest and two pairs of breeches". (Mme Vve Péré A Villebreux Perrée. Louisbourg, 22 October 1733. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, Série G2, Vol. 195, Dossier 83). 2. "In the 18th century the word habit replaced justaucorps (Larousse XX siècle, "justaucorps") e.g.: "asked whether he had a vest or a suit. answered that he had his suit and his vest." ("Procès-verbal d'interrogatoire de Lamerlière." Louisbourg, 2 February 1751. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, Série G2, Vol. 210, Dossier 516, Picce 15). E: 1. Justaucorps (Larousse XX siecle. see habit D.2) (Lb. see habit D.2) 2. Overcoat (Lb.) e.g.: "a suit or overcoat" (Inventaire des meubles de la Succession de feu Sr. DeCouage ingenieur. Louisbourg, 4 February 1740. A.N., Section Outre-Mer, Série G2, Vol. 197, Dossier 129).
VEST	D: 1. "Garment worn under the justaucorps or the suit. It has sleeves, basques and pockets, and is buttoned, but it reaches only to the knees. (Diderot., "Vests"). 2. Garment with four flaps (pans), which reaches to the knees. (Larousse XX siècle, "Vests"). E: Polonaise (Lb., see polonaise, E.1)
WAISTCOAT	D: 1. Short sleeveless garment worn under a vest, jaquette ... etc. A sort of camisole of wool or cotton, which was worn next to the skin or over a shirt. The gilet is a vest without basques, and originally without pockets. (Larousse, XX siècle, "gilet"). 2. see camisole, D.2 E: camisole

This information has been collected from Diderot's Encyclépédie, the Dictionnaire Larousse de XX siécle. The Cut Of Men's Clothes: 1600-1900 by Norah Waugh (London 1964, "Other Types of Garments", p. 89, "French Terms used with the English Equivalent", p. 90), XV111E Siècle: Institutions, Usages et Costumes by Paul Lacroix (Paris, 1885, po 493), and the Louisbourg Archives.

We have studied here only the garments which are mentioned in the Louisbourg documents.

In order to avoid repetitions each time a term appears, we have indicated cross references the first time a term appears.

The ,justaucorps, the 'jacket' of the 18th century suit, hung to the knees. It could be closed along a row of buttons at the front. It had no collar. Each side had large box pleats called "basques" and the back was open from the waist. The sleeves had cuffs, called "buttes de la manche". The pockets had flaps with button-holes matching the buttons sewn on the coat.

After making his measurements and tracing the contours onto the material, the tailor cut out the pieces: two front pieces, two for the back, two pieces for each sleeve, two sleeve cuffs and two pocket flaps were the main parts of the garment.

The tailor assembled the two pieces of the back by a seam from neck to waist, in the center of the back. The tails were left divided. Then the front pieces were prepared. Each side was more rigid near the center, since the pieces were reinforced by a strip of buckram (bougran) on the inside of each piece. Button-holes were cut down the left side of the front. Openings for the pockets were already cut and the pockets were attached from the inside, though the flaps were sewn to the outside of the fabric.

Before joining front to back, the tailor sewed in a precisely fitted lining. The side seams ran from the armpit towards the waist, where they stopped. Then the garment was sewed above the shoulders. The collar was finished with a narrow strip of fabric attached to the outside and folded over the hem.

Below the waist, the front and back had a surplus of material on each side. This was pleated. The pleats, held up by points of stitching, formed the pleats known as "basques".

The sleeves remained to be assembled and attached. Two seams were made to assemble the pieces which formed the upper and under sides of the sleeves. Cuffs were done in the same way and attached to the sleeves. Each cuff was trimmed with five buttons and button-holes. The lining, separately assembled, was sewn to the sleeve. That done, the sleeve was sewn to the body.

The vest, which used the same basic model as the justaucorps, was similar in assembly, though it was simpler. It was not as long and had neither pleats at the sides nor cuffs on the sleeves. The sleeves were slit a few inches up the wrist; a button-hole was made on one side of the cut and a button placed on the other.

Breeches reached to just below the knee where they ended with a garter. They closed at the front by either a brayette, a simple buttoned vertical opening in the center, or by a pont or bavaroise, a larger opening which buttoned at each side of the front.

Four pieces were cut to make breeches. Two formed the front and two the back. The tailor used the same material to line the tops of the pockets and the slits at the bottom, which were at the sides and rose to the knee. He sewed five buttons and button-holes around these openings. The front piece and the back piece were then joined down the sides to the opening, and along the insides of the thighs. The crotch-piece seam (la couture de l'entre-jambe) between the two back pieces stopped three pouces from the waist. The one at the front stopped at the brayette.

A waistband with several pleats took up the surplus material. It could be adjusted at the center of the back with a buckle and closed at the front with two buttons and button-holes.

The lining, made of dressed sheepskin ("peau de mouton chamoisée"), fustian, or toile, was made separately and added to the breeches after pockets had been sewn inside. Finally, the garters were sewn into the bottom of each leg. They were narrow bands of the same material, held together by a buckle.

The three pieces which made up the suit were all common in men's wardrobes at Louisbourg. It was less common to find them as an ensemble, made of the same material. When that was the case (See Table No. 4) the suit often would be made of plain materials woven without twill ("drags: tissu simple, sans croisure") of different qualities, or other allied materials such as camlet (camelot). There were also velvet-like fabrics such as plush. Colours were usually sombre: blue, black or different shades of gray or brown.

Merchants or merchant-brokers, [61a] ship's carpenters., [62] engineer., [63] bailiff of the Superior Council: [64] these were the occupations of those who wore suits. Some exceptions can be found, such as the master baker [65] and the lighthouse-keeper [66] who had suits, but theirs were of inferior quality, made of "rough brown cloth" or "common material".

A few details show the refinement attainable by the wealthy. Such is the case for a suit for which material was ordered in France in 1729[67] It was made of "drap d'Elbeuf or something more beautiful, iron gray in colour, with fine red lining, and with all the trimming matched".

Ornamentation also contributed to the quality of a suit. Buttons could be flat, cloth-covered or simply of an ordinary metal-like copper or tin. But sometimes gold or silver buttons were chosen, or the suit was decorated with braids, fringes or variously embroidered ribbons. Louisbourg inventory of 1750 listed a "blue camlet suit with buttons of gold thread and with a white taffeta lining, a blue vest with a gold braid and a white silk lining" and a pair of blue breeches. [68] It belonged to a boat captain and was worth 120 livres, though at the time it was "somewhat used'". The high price itself suggests why this sort of suit was a rare thing in Louisbourg.

Other suits were so splendid as to make them a true luxury item. "The most beautiful ... are the embroidered suits, of silk, with golden or silver flowers, or of golden cloth, etc." [69] These were almost non-existant at Louisbourg, except in exceptional cases. The governor, whose situation was clearly unique, owned one of these suits, valued at 333 livres in 1744. [70] The three pieces were not of the same material, but were designed to be matched: the coat was "cinnamon, braided with gold, lined with crimson silk" and the vest was "Naples cloth (gros de Naple) the colour of fire, also gold braided and lined with white silk ...and breeches of the same material".

Up to this point, we have considered suits as designed by the tailor in their most classical form. Most often these were three pieces of the same material. We might call "street clothes" (habits de ville) those that were of sombre colour, while others, much more rare and luxurious, were reserved for more sophisticated occasions.

It is wrong, however, to assume that all those wearing suits looked the same. Although style was more conformist at that time than in the 20th century, one was allowed to make variations within certain limits. Except for a few details, the model remained the same, but one could combine different materials, colours or garments. Several examples will show this variety. Rather than giving the complete list, which would mean repetition and a confused picture, or on the other hand giving only a general outline, we have chosen to use a selection of valuable examples. Two criteria have guided the choices: we have used citations which both serve as representatives of the whole and offer precise details. They are listed by the different possible combinations and may be a useful guide for costume reproduction.

Unlike the suit which only rich or distinguished men wore regularly, vests and breeches were part of every wardrobe from the most luxurious to the most humble. (In the latter case a wardrobe would be merely a simple cupboard containing a few old clothes). Vest and breeches could make an ensemble, particularly when made of the same material (See Table No. 5 and No. 6) but most often, they were cited separately in lists of clothing with nothing to suggest they were part of a single outfit.

It is difficult to establish norms in judging average daily wear. These garments were not made to measure by tailors and unfortunately only the techniques of these artisans have been noted and conserved. Some of these garments were probably made at home. Others, less individual, were sold from large batches: sixty pairs of breeches and ten vests

PERIOD	COTTON	cotton	WOOL	wool	SILK	silk	OTHER	other	COLOUR
1713 to 1745	4 dimity 3 striped cotton	x -	5 mazamet 4 camlet 3 pinchina 3 frieze (ratine)	x + x x	6 plush 3 velvet 1 silk drugget 1 checked silk	v v + -	13 toile 3 sailcloth 1 toile rousse 7 drap 2 gros drap 6 skin (leather) 1 mooseskin 3 moresque 3 écarlatine 2 étoffe 2 étoffe commune 2 short napped cloth 2 tick -1 "cordeillac"	+ + + + + - - - - + + -	11 brown 4 black 4 red 3 blue 2 maroon 1 white 1 gray 1 beige
TOTAL	7		15		11		48		-
1748 to 1758	4 striped cotton 2 cotton 4 striped Siamese 3 toile de coton	- - + +	5 frieze (ratine) 2 beaver 1 camlet 1 calamance 1 brocaded wool 1 woollen velvet	x + + - - v	36 plush 11 velvet 1 brocaded velvet 1 silk drugget	v v v +	35 sailcloth 3 toile 1 toile de mer 1 striped toile 23 drap 2 fluted drap 7 skin [leather] 5 mooseskin 4 tick 3 "very strong diablement fort" 3 beggars velvet 2 "Ginga" 2 short-napped cloth 2 étoffe 1 étoffe ciselé 1 etamine 1 grisette	+ + + + + + + - - - + - - - +	18 red 16 blue 8 brown 6 gray 4 black 3 white 2 green 2 gray-white
TOTAL	13		11		49		96		-
GRAND TOTAL	20		26		60		144		-

ABBREVIATIONS:
+: fabric without twill weave (perpendicular pattern)
x: twill woven fabric (diagonal pattern)
v: velvet-textured fabric
-: weaving technique is unknown

from a merchants boutique were sold in 1756.[82] On engravings of the period, [83] people illustrated in scenes of daily life wore what appear to be very similar garments. However garments of this type which are mentioned in the Louisbourg documents are of various values, due to the degree of use as well as the quality of the materials and the workmanship. In general, vests worn separately were the same as those made for suits, except in the case of double-breasted vests (vestes "croisées"). These crossed over the front to button at the side. [84] The style was well known, for seven of the vests mentioned above as merchandise were double-breasted. However it was not a greatly popular style for only two other documents refer to them. [85]

Not all vests received all the detail demanded by the rules of good tailoring for there were several vests "without lining". [86]

Several types of woollen cloths and fabrics, toiles, cottons, even silk and leather were used to make vests (See Table ho. 5). Thus vests could be chosen from a, wide variety of materials besides those used for suits. It was the same for colours, which were not all sombre shades, but also covered a range of brighter colours.

On this subject; and this applies to breeches as well as to vests, it is interesting to note the change which followed the English occupation of 1745-1748. Reds and blues were more popular in the latter period than in the earlier one, when dark colours were more popular. An explanation of this phenomenon would demand an investigation beyond the scope of this study. Keeping that in mind however, we can put forward a few hypotheses which emerge at first glance. It would have to be shown that it is not merely a chance impression given by the sample without basis
in fact. This would require enlarging the sample by a similar study of a region of Europe or the colonies at the same period. An investigation of techniques of colouring or of the sources of Louisbourg's imports might be enlightening. Finally, it may be that civilians began wearing military garments after the events of 1745. The available evidence includes both support for and opposition to this theory. If these bright colours were uniforms, they would probably have been of one material, but this is not the case with red vests and breeches, which included "very strong" cloth ("diablement fort") [87] "beggar's velvet" (velours de gueux) [88] and camlet. [89] Among the blue materials were ribbed cloth (drap "canellé") [90] "very strong" cloth ("diablement fort") [91] and plush (panne). [92] On the other hand a discharged soldier returned to civilian life was wearing breeches of regulation blue ("Culotte Bleuf dammunition") when he was murdered in 1756. [93] Therefore it is not impossible that civilians had parts of uniforms, but it was not always the case even when their clothes were the same colour.

The same materials served for the making of both vests (See Table No. 5) and breeches (See Table No. 6) but in addition several velvet-like materials were used for breeches. Except for those of toile or cotton, breeches were usually of a single styles a waistband adjustable at the back, a brayette or pont fastening at the front and garters fastened below the knee.

Breeches were not always lined. Beside the unlined vest mentioned above is written "Breeches of the same type".[94] If there was a lining, it was in silk, [95] serge, [96] silken serge (serge de soie), [97] or simply toile. [98] Nor was it rare that leather be used, for a reference is made to nine "skins for the lining of breeches" belonging to a merchant of the period.[99]

Moreover leather was used not only in linings, but also for the breeches themselves. The occupation of those who wore leather breeches is not known in all cases. There was a "bourgeois" [100] who could well have had them for sale. The others were a fisherman, [101] a ship captain [102] and a beach master (maître de grave). [103] Evidently leather breeches were worn for fishing and related activities.

Seamen wore other garments of toile or cotton, which were unique to them. Garments for sale included long breeches "of toile, for fishermen".[104] Usually this unbleached cloth or canvas sometimes called "sail cloth" (toile à voile),[105] sometimes "sea-cloth" (toile de mer),[106] "was used only for making sails for ships"[107] but in this case, it was used for breeches which belonged to a fisherman and a boat captain.

There were also captains [108] who owned breeches described as "American style" (à l'américaine). It is possible that these were long. It is certain that they were made of cotton or toile and were usually striped.

The garments described in this section have been grouped according to the terms used in the primary sources. However the descriptions in those sources of the use of these garments does not always correspond to their theoretical definition. It is possible in fact that there were some reversals of common usage. Hence it will be useful to refer to Table 3 to clarify the terminology used.

This section deals with various kinds of vests and Justaucorps. Some of these, simply different styles, had the same degree of elegance and the same class of wearers as the usual suit (habit). Others, more modest but comfortable, were found in less elevated social groups. The same applies to outdoor wear where a particular style of wear was restricted to one group, the seamen.

The word blanchet, which originally referred to a white woollen cloth, was applied subsequently to a sleeved camisole (camisole à manches). [109] The latter sense was the one retained at Louisbourg where it was apparently worn over a shirt. It took the place of the vest and could be worn with breeches, as is suggested by the expression "four changes of Blanchets and Breeches"; [110] the fact that there were matched suits, such as a blanchet and breeches of brown Mazamet (Mazamet brun) confirms in this hypothesis. [111] We cannot consider a blanchet simply as a type of vest (veste) or waistcoat (gilet) since there are records of a blanchet "and vest" [112] or "and gilet". [113] They were often made of wool or simple fabric (étoffe), but sometimes of cotton, and the colour was not always white. (See Table No. 7)

This garment was common among fishermen, [114 ]and also found in the possessions of a ship's carpenter. [115] It was never found in the inventories of richer men, except those of merchants. Two of them had five [116] and nine [117] blanchets respectively. These quantities indicate that they were probably articles for sale. Consequently their usage must have been fairly widespread.

Although we have not traced the contemporary definition of the term bougrine, this garment was used from the middle of the 18th century. It appeared only once in our research, in a list of "Supplies furnished to the crew" (Fournitures faites à l'équipage).[118] In this context, it must refer to a seaman's garment, possibly a capot or cloak.

The wearing of capes was not popular among the men of Louisbourg, for of all the inventories examined, only one referred to capes. [119] It included two, one of them "an old worn out cape". Could this actually refer to a capot? That is plausible, because the same individual also had a vest and breeches of leather as well as a casaque, which were, like the capot, garments for fishermen.

The capot "is a garment in the form of a hooded robe, which sailors put over their ordinary wear to protect them from the weather". [120] All information gathered, about capots at Louisbourg confirms this definition. Except for a merchant's brown camlet capot, [121] they all belonged to fishermen, [122] a beach master, [123] and a schooner captain. [124] In the last case, the garment was specified as a shipboard capot (capot de bord). That of the beach master was a capot provençal. This phrase is repeated in two other instances, [125] but there is no detail as to its definition. Other than the merchant's capot, they were all made of "moresque" (also written mareique; moreique; Marecque or maraye), a fabric about which we have no information.

The cloak (la casague) was not by definition a garment worn only by fishermen. It was "a type of long overcoat worn over other clothing".[126] However its use at Louisbourg was closely related to the fishing industry. "

Moresque" which generally was used for making capots also went into "casaquin"[127] which suggests the two garments were related. Nevertheless the casaque was a special type, for it was always made of leather. It was undoubtedly popular with seamen for its waterproof quality. [128] It is noteable that two cloaks for a "fisherman by profession" [129] were described as for fishermen. A merchant had six goat skin casaques "for fishing". [130] Finally, it is interesting to note the relationship between breeches of leather [131] and toile [132] and cloaks. The fact that these garments are mentioned together provides some confirmation that the former were fishermen's breeches.

The waistcoat (gilet) had neither tails nor pockets and was not lined. It was distinguished from a vest, as in references to "a vest and a waistcoat", [133] but the difference may have been small for there is mention of "a waistcoat or vest of blue fabric". [134] There were gilets with [135] and without sleeves. [136] Several were made of wool, and others, simply referred to as "fabric" (étoffe) were probably of the same material. (See Table No. 8) "Needleworked" [137] may mean that the waistcoats were knitted, but most, tailored from woven fabrics, were sewn.

There is no doubt that this garment was worn by sailors, for once again the owners included fishermen, [138] ship captains, [139] ship's

carpenters,[140] the lighthouse keeper,[141] the beachmaster.[142] There is even mention of "a fisherman's gilet". [143]

It was not strictly reserved to this section of the population, for one finds gilets, though rarely, among men such as engineers, [144] or the clerk of the Superior Council. [145] In exceptional cases, it would not be a simple filet of comfortable wool but at the same time an elegant piece of clothing, when for example, it was trimmed "with white satin cuffs". [146]

One finds in the effects of a merchant-broker "a lining for a mantelet of white wool". [147] The effects of a ship captain include a mantelet of "common Indian cloth lined with flannel".[148] This short cape was very popular among women but was rarely worn by men. Only in New France did men adopt the short cape[149] and, though mantelets were not common here, Louisbourg was not an exception in this case.

Other than the fact that it was trimmed with frogging (brandebourgs) (See Table No. 3), we have no description of the polonaise, though vests of this type appear a dozen times in the documents. The specified fabrics are similar to those used for ordinary vests (See Table No. 5): plush,[150] wool (a coarse variety called pinchinat)[151] and calamanco (calemande)[152] and of "rough blue fabric" (grosse étoffe bleue)[153]

The redingotte, which took its name from "riding coat", was a coat buttoned from collar to waist. It had a collar like that of the surtout and another circular one covering the pleats of the upper back like a short cape. From the number of references to it (about thirty), it was more popular at Louisbourg than the vest à la polonaise. It was made with cloth (drap) (See Table No. 9) and was sometimes regarded as a vest, as when a soldier hid a stolen object "under his redingotte" that is "under his vest". [154] Thus it was not necessarily an outdoor coat.

It is doubtful that every redingotte was the elegant garment implied in the name. If it were so, it would be difficult to explain why one was owned by a fisherman (compagnon pêcheur) [155] or why another was worth less than 3 livres, [156] though that of the governor, made of "gray cloth trimmed with a collar of black velvet", [157] cost 101 livres. Between these extremes, prices averaged between 10 and 15 livres. Those who wore redingottes were generally the same people who wore suits.

It was also the same people who wore the overcoat (surtout), a type of "justaucorps which one wore over other clothes during winter". [158] However it had a collar and the front buttons stopped at the level of the pockets. There were only three buttons at the back opening. Though it was theoretically an outdoor coat, it could replace the justaucorps and in some cases, it could be part of a suit, since one reads, for example, of a surtout "with its vest and breeches". [159] The surtout was not unusual at Louisbourg but it was less common than the justaucorps from which it differed only slightly. Like the justaucorps, it was made of wool or cloth, but the colours we know about were less sombre than those used in the suit (See Table No. 10).

The "frockcoat" (volant) is another style of coat known in Louisbourg, though it was more rare than the surtout which it resembled, being differentiated only by its unbuttoned sleeves and buttoned collar. We doubt whether these differences were of great importance in the usage of the time. Frequent mention is made of a frocked overcoat (surtout volant) [160] or an "overcoat or frockcoat of red camlet with a vest and breeches...4 livres". [161] This example suggests a resemblance to the justaucorps since it was combined with a vest and breeches, just as in a suit. The frockcoat was sometimes very luxurious. A ship captain had a frockcoat of "gray Brussels camlet trimmed with frogging of gold lace and new buttons of gold thread", which was worth 95 livres. [162] Another, valued at 16 livres, was certainly more sober. It was probably part of a uniform, since it was described as a "regulation white frock coat" (volant blanc d'ordonnance). [163] When camlet is not specified, the most common reference is to "cloth"(drap) without further detail.

In 1756 the inventory of a merchant's gods included "sixteen goat's leather devantaux" [164] which were not listed among the same goods sold a few days later. [165] The sale included sixteen leather aprons (tabliers) which were not in the inventory. This suggests that a devantau was an apron. This deduction provides the only definition we have been able to find for this term, which would correspond to the leather aprons one sees in engraved illustrations of 18th century fishing scenes: men cleaning the fish after the boats returned wore a type of apron which covered their front (devant).

Devantaux were common at Louisbourg. [166] They belonged to the men (except captains) who also owned cloaks and fishermen's capots. Hence it was a fisherman's garment and the sixteen belonging to the merchant were undoubtedly for sale. These ones were of goat's leather. Others were of sheepskin [167] and the rest say simply "leather" or "skin" or do not specify the material, as if a devantau were of leather by definition.

The simple apron (tablier) was no doubt used more frequently than the documents show. There were one hundred and thirty-two kitchen aprons, "both good and bad" worth less than one livre together, in the household of Governor Duquesnel. [168] His servants wore them for work.
A cooper accused of theft was said to have "put it all in his apron". [169] The cooper pretended that he was going to the pond where he soaked the barrel staves used in his work. This shows that he wore an apron in the course of his work.

There are no references to aprons apart from these. These are fairly important, then, to show that artisans and simple domestics at Louisbourg protected their clothes with an apron while they worked.

PERIOD	TOILE	COTTON	UNSPECIFIED
1713 to 1745	80	4	521
1748 to 1758	105	4	513
1713 to 1758	185	8	1,034

YEAR	QUANTITY	PRICE	CLOTH	OCCUPATION
1732 1736 1741 1750 1750 1751 1752 1756 1757 1757 1757	47 3 7 4 13 4 1 24 6 2 1	- 3#3s 1#4s 5# 6# - 1#15s - - - -	"rough unbleached toile" "white toilet" "rough toile" "blue Zinga toile" "Bretagne toile" "Rouen toile" "royal blue toile" "toile de Leval" "Jinga" holland toile Rouen toile	"bourgeois" - - schooner captain treasurer of the Marine stolen from a merchant bourgeois - merchant - -

PERIOD	FABRIC	COLOUR
1713 to 1745	8 cloth (drap): 3 unspecified type 1 d'Elbeuf 1 d'Abbeville 1 "gros drap" 2 "canelle" 3 material (étoffe): 1 unspecified type 2 common stuff 3 plush 1 camlet on silk 1 short nap maroccan (ras de maroc)	3 brown - 2 iron gray - 1 black - - - - -
1748 to 1758	9 cloth: 6 unspecified type 2 d'Elbeuf 1 new and fine 3 camlet: 1 unspecified 2 on silk 1 friezed Cadiz cloth 1 short-napped	2 gray-white - 2 gray 1 brown 1 coffee-coloured 3 blue 3 black

PERIOD	WOOL	OTHER	COLOUR
1713 to 1745	1 carisé	2 drap 1 gros drap 1 étoffe	2 blue 1 gray 1 "gray-brown"
TOTAL
1748 to 1758	1 carisé	2 drap 2 gros drap 1 étoffe	2 red 1 gray brown 1 brown
TOTAL	1	5	-
GRAND TOTAL	2	9	-